Pengembangan Afektif (Cooperation) pada Teori Piaget

Menurut Piaget, anak pada usia 7 tahun akan memasuki tahap operasional konkret, dimana anak sudah mampu berpikir rasional, seperti penalaran untuk menyelesaikan suatu masalah yang konkret (aktual). Namun, bagaimanapun juga dalam kemampuan berpikir mereka masih terbatas pada situasi nyata. Pada bagian dibawah ini lebih pada pengembangan afektif dalam lingkup interaksi anak atau kerjasama.

Perkembangan kognitif dan Perkembangan afektif tidak dapat dipisahkan. Jadi, ketika perkembangan kognitif dan perkembangan afektif dikonsep secara independen, tidak dapat dipungkiri bahwa diantara keduanya terdapat kesejajaran yang jelas. Pada tahap operasional konkrit, penalaran dan pikiran memperoleh stabilitas yang lebih besar dari pikiran praoperasional. Kemampuan penalaran menjadi semakin logis dan kurang tunduk pada pengaruh oleh kontradiksi persepsi. Reversibilitas pikiran (kemampuan mengubah arah berfikir kembali ke titik awal) dan bantuan de-centering (anak mulai mempertimbangkan beberapa aspek dari suatu permasalahan untuk bisa memecahkannya) membawa konsistensi dan konservasi (kemampuan pemikiran logis) pada penalaran operasional konkrit anak.

Faktor-faktor ini mempengaruhi tidak hanya penalaran kognitif tetapi juga penalaran afektif. Selama tahap operasional konkrit, afeksi memperoleh ukuran stabilitas dan konsistensi yang tidak hadir sebelumnya.

Selama tahap operasi konkrit, reversibilitas muncul dalam penalaran afektif anak. Asal-usul reversibilitas dalam lingkup afektif tampak dalam tahap praoperasional. Pada saat itu, perasaan tidak sepenuhnya "di konservasi", dan afeksi bersifat prenormative; tetapi karena perasaan sehari-hari bisa diwakili dan di ingat, perasaan tidak lagi berhubungan.

Pada usia sekitar 7 atau 8 tahun, muncul konservasi perasaan dan nilai-nilai. Anak-anak menjadi mampu menyelaraskan pikiran afektif mereka dari satu peristiwa ke yang lain. Apa yang dilestarikan atau dipertahankan, dari waktu ke waktu, adalah beberapa aspek dari perasaan masa lalu. Pemikiran afektif sekarang dapat dibalik (reversible). Masa lalu bisa dijadikan sebagai bagian dari penalaran saat ini melalui kemampuan untuk membalikkan dan melestarikan. Contoh konkritnya, menambah dan mengurang merupakan operasi yang sama dilakukan dengan arah yang berlawan, 2+1=3, 3-1=2.

Piaget menyarankan bahwa interaksi sosial selama tahap praoperasional mendorong pengembangan konservasi perasaan.

....... kehidupan sosial memerlukan pemikiran untuk memperoleh hasil tertentu. Untuk dapat terjadi, aktivitas mental tidak lagi dapat diwakili dalam hal simbol khusus seperti fantasi yang lucu (simbol permainan) akan tetapi harus dinyatakan dalam penanda universal seperti tanda linguistik (bahasa). Keseragaman dan konsistensi ekspresi yang diberlakukan oleh kehidupan sosial memegang peranan besar, oleh karena itu, dalam pengembangan struktur intelektual dengan konservasi dan invarian; hal itu akan menyebabkan transformasi analog (perubahan yang sama) dalam domain perasaan. Akibatnya, performansi (hasil) jelas kurang dari perasaan spontan yang akan muncul dengan sosial dan terutama, perasaan moral .....

Menyukai orang lain adalah perasaan yang bervariasi selama itu spontan dan terkait dengan situasi tertentu. Hal ini menjadi langgeng dan dapat diandalkan ketika perasaan semi-kewajiban ditambahkan.

Dalam bab terakhir afeksi praoperasional adalah prenormative. Meskipun tidak sepenuhnya memenuhi salah satu dari tiga kriteria untuk menjadi normatif: (1) dapat di generalisasi, (2) yang bertahan, dan (3) yang terkait dengan otonomi. Selama tahap operasional konkrit, kriteria ini terpenuhi sebagai kemampuan penalaran afektif anak-anak menjadi "operasional." Dengan cara yang sama bahwa reversibilitas mengarah ke logika penalaran, yang mengarah ke logika afektif. Operasi yang dapat dibalik muncul dalam domain afektif.

Untuk lebih memahami keyakinan Piaget tentang perkembangan afektif selama tahap operasional konkret, penting untuk memahami konsepnya tentang kehendak dan otonomi.

Kehendak (Keinginan)

Piaget menegaskan bahwa "analog afektif operasi intelektual ditemukan dalam tindakan “kehendak". Dia melihat kehendak sebagai skala permanen dari nilai yang dibangun oleh individu dimana ia merasa berkewajiban untuk mematuhinya. Kehendak mengasumsikan peran sebagai pembuat aturan (self-regulation) dari afektif dan dengan mekanisme nilai yang dikonservasi. Dalam kegiatan kognitif, konflik antara pengalaman persepsi dan penalaran logis diatur melalui konservasi, kemampuan untuk mempertahankan kepatuhan dalam menghadapi perubahan secara logis yang tidak relevan. Demikian pula, konflik antara impuls afektif diatur oleh kehendak selama kehendak itu berada di tempatnya, nilai-nilai dapat dinyatakan pada dorongan yang bertentangan, meskipun dorongan mungkin lebih kuat pada satu titik dari nilai dan kehendak.

Menurut Piaget, terdapat sejumlah faktor pendorong terhadap pengembangan secara bertahap dari kehendak. Salah satu faktor, yang telah disebutkan, adalah tuntutan dari pengalaman sosial, yang mendorong konsistensi dalam jiwa afektif. Perilaku yang memiliki kesinambungan diperkuat oleh orang lain lebih dari perilaku yang tidak konsisten. Selain itu, pengalaman afektif dan perasaan sekarang dilestarikan. Pada saat saat tertentu, bekas-bekas afektif, diwakili dalam memori dan saaat ini, merupakan bagian dari penalaran afektif. Pengalaman afektif dari masa lalu tidak bisa lagi diabaikan. Kesadaran akan perasaan masa lalu dan sekarang dapat menyebabkan keputusan afektif yang berbeda dari kesadaran perasaan saat ini.

Otonomi (kemampuan untuk membuat keputusan sendiri

Otonomi berarti yang diatur oleh diri sendiri, bukan oleh orang lain (Kamii 1982). penalaran Otonomi adalah penalaran sesuai dengan set yang dibangun sendiri dari norma-norma. Lebih bersifat Mengevaluasi ketimbang otomatis menerima nilai-nilai yang dilakukan orang lain. Selain itu, penalaran otonom menganggap orang lain serta diri/ seperti dirinya sendiri (as the self).

Selama tahap praoperasional, anak-anak melihat dan menerima aturan yang diturunkan dari beberapa otoritas yang lebih tinggi seperti orang tua, Tuhan, dan otoritas tinggi lainnya. Keadilan dipandang hidup dengan aturan-aturan tersebut. Moralitas anak di tingkat praoperasional adalah salah satu ketaatan. Anak-anak praoperasional tidak memikirkan tentang apa yang benar atau salah. Bagi mereka, apa yang benar atau salah adalah yang telah ditentukan (otoritas) dan tidak tunduk pada penilaian mereka sendiri. Sangat sedikit interaksi kerjasama, dan yang mendominasi hanyalah ketaatan.

Sekitar usia 7 atau 8, anak-anak mulai mampu membuat evaluasi moral mereka sendiri. Artinya, mereka mulai memikirkan tentang "kebenaran" atau "ketidaktepatan" tindakan dan efek dari tindakan pada orang lain. Ini, tentu saja, tidak berarti bahwa pemikiran mereka tentu benar; itu berarti bahwa mereka mulai berubah dari moralitas ketaatan kepada nilai-nilai yang baru dibangun untuk moralitas kerjasama dan evaluasi.

Saling menghormati adalah agen dalam pengembangan pemikiran otonom yang muncul selama tahap ini. Sampai sekitar usia 7 atau 8 tahun, anak-anak menganggap orang dewasa dengan hormat secara sepihak (menghormati otoritas). Moralitas anak-anak merupakan salah satu dari ketaatan. Saling menghormati adalah rasa hormat antara "sesama." Anak-anak dapat mengembangkan sikap menghormati sesama setelah mereka berhasil untuk melihat cara pandang orang lain.

Orang mungkin menduga bahwa saling menghormati muncul dari tekanan sosial dan pengalaman. Piaget memiliki pendapat yang berbeda, bahwa pengalaman sosial tidak cukup menjelaskan perkembangan ini. Meskipun terdapat perbedaan, masyarakat dewasa biasanya mendorong anak-anak untuk menerima tindakan hormat sepihak untuk kepentingan otoritas orang dewasa.

Orang tua dan guru melihat dengan jelas indikator pengembangan otonomi anak mulai dari konflik dengan orang dewasa seperti mana yang adil dan benar. Seperti halnya anak berumur tujuh tahun yang mengeluh, mengklaim kurangnya keadilan, dimana kakak memiliki sepotong kue yang lebih besar atau begadang dan terjaga diatas jam tidur sering menunjukkan penalaran otonomi.

Otonomi belum sepenuhnya dikembangkan selama tahap operasional konkret. Perasaan otonom awal anak-anak sering datang dari sudut pandang mereka sendiri (egosentris/ kesulitan untuk melihat dari sudut pandang orang lain). Anak yang sama dalam contoh di atas yang menunjukkan beberapa penalaran otonom ketika berhadapan dengan orang dewasa mungkin tidak menunjukkan ketika berhadapan dengan saudara atau teman sebaya, kecuali ada saling menghormati. Pengembangan lebih lanjut diperlukan sebelum anak menjadi mampu mengambil semua faktor yang relevan menjadi pertimbangan dan memutuskan tindakan yang terbaik bagi semua pihak dan bukan hanya untuk diri mereka sendiri.

Dengan perkembangan kehendak dan otonomi, pergeseran menjadi jelas dalam konsep aturan anak-anak, kebetulan, berbohong, keadilan, dan penalaran moral.

Aturan

Selama tahap sensorimotor, anak-anak tidak memiliki konsep aturan untuk games atau permainan. Selama tahap praoperasional, anak-anak menjadi sadar akan aturan dan permintaan dari orang lain, kepatuhan keras dengan aturan. Mereka melihat aturan sebagai tetap dan permanen, dan ketika mereka bermain game, mereka bermain untuk "menang."

Biasanya usia sekitar 7 atau 8 tahun (tahap awal operasional konkret dari penalaran), anak-anak mulai memahami pentingnya aturan dari permainan. Kerjasama pun mulai muncul. Aturan tidak lagi dilihat sebagai sebagai sesuatu yang mutlak dan tidak dapat diubah. Anak-anak biasanya mengembangkan gagasan bahwa aturan permainan dapat diubah jika semua menyetujui perubahan tersebut. Anak-anak mulai mencoba untuk memenangkan (tindakan sosial) sementara ia masih menyesuaikan dengan aturan permainan.

Dalam upaya untuk memenangkan, anak berusaha mencoba cara diatas semua untuk bersaing dengan pasangannya sambil mengamati aturan umum. Kesenangan tertentu dari permainan berhenti menjadi tegang [tahap 1] dan egosentris [tahap 2] dan menjadi sosial.

Untuk anak yang mulai menunjukkan kerjasama, tujuan dari permainan ini adalah tidak lagi untuk mengetuk kelereng keluar dari lingkaran atau persegi tetapi untuk menang (dalam arti yang kompetitif).

Sementara kerjasama ini terbukti dalam Tahap 3, anak-anak biasanya tidak tahu (belum dibangun) aturan permainan secara detail, dan banyak perbedaan (ketidaksesuaian) yang jelas dalam laporan anak-anak tentang apa aturan itu. Kurangnya kesepakatan tentang aturan dan penekanan pada pemenang dapat diamati secara nyata pada kelompok anak-anak muda yang terlibat dalam permainan. Jika diizinkan, mereka akan menghabiskan lebih banyak waktu berdebat tentang apa aturannya, dalam upaya untuk menang, daripada menghabiskan waktu untuk bermain game.



Kecelakaan dan Kecanggungan

Sebelumnya telah dicatat bahwa anak-anak praoperasional tidak dapat mempertimbangkan maksud orang lain dalam penilaian mereka tentang kecelakaan. Dengan demikian anak praoperasional yang sengaja menabrak orang lain biasanya memandang tabrakan sebagai kesengajaan daripada kebetulan. Demikian pula, Anak yang memecahkan 15 cangkir lebih nakal dari anak yang hanya memecahkan satu cangkir, terlepas dari niat(maksud) masing-masing anak. Lima belas cangkir rusak lebih buruk dari satu.

Sekitar usia 8 atau 9, ciri anak yang mengembangkan operasi konkrit mulai mengembangkan kemampuan untuk mempertimbangkan sudut pandang orang lain. Dengan kemampuan ini, maksud (niat) mulai dipahami dan dipertimbangkan ketika membuat penilaian. Maksud (niat) menjadi lebih penting ketimbang konsekuensi dari tindakan. Anak laki-laki yang memecahkan 15 cangkir secara tidak sengaja tidak lagi dipandang "buruk" ketimbang anak laki-laki yang memecahkan satu cangkir melakukan sesuatu dia diberitahu untuk tidak melakukannya.

Sayangnya, pandangan Piaget pemahaman anak-anak dari kecelakaan tidak menawarkan harapan bahwa anak-anak dapat "diajarkan" untuk memahami maksud anak-anak lain. Pemahaman maksud tidak dapat "diajarkan" untuk anak-anak melalui metode verbal. Menurut Piaget, setiap anak harus membangun konsep diluar interaksi aktif dengan orang lain. Teman sangat penting dalam proses ini. Sampai anak menjadi mampu mengambil sudut pandang orang lain, ia tidak bisa membangun konsep intensionalitas. Temuan Piaget membantu kita untuk memahami tanggapan anak-anak untuk kecelakaan dan kecanggungan orang lain, tetapi mereka tidak memecahkan masalah apa yang harus dilakukan tentang perilaku tersebut.



Kebohongan

Dalam tahap operasional, anak melihat kebohongan sebagai sesuatu yang tidak benar. Hal tersebut tidak berlaku hingga sekitar usia 10 atau 11 tahun dimana anak-anak mulai mempertimbangkan maksud-maksud ketika menilai apakah suatu tindakan tertentu adalah kebohongan. Pada tingkat ini, ketidakbenaran yang tidak dimaksudkan untuk menipu tidak secara otomatis dinilai sebagai kebohongan.

Konsep dari kebohongan orang dewasa sangat berbeda dari operational anak. Tersirat dalam perbedaan ini adalah bahwa sebagian besar anak-anak tidak dapat memahami konsepsi orang dewasa tentang kebohongan sebelum mengembangkan pemikiran operasional konkret tengah. Bahkan jika mereka ingin, anak kecil tidak bisa membuat penilaian seperti penilaian orang dewasa tentang kebohongan.

Keadilan

Penelitian Piagets mengungkapkan bahwa konsep anak-anak terhadap keadilan berubah seiring mereka berkembang. Anak praoperasional menganggap aturan sebagai tetap dan tidak berubah. Selama tahap operasional konkret, anak-anak berkembang dengan baik, meskipun sedikit terbatas pada pemahaman terhadap hukum dan aturan. Mereka mulai mempertimbangkan peranan “maksud” dalam memutuskan hal.

Seperti halnya ketika seorang gadis muda menyangkal penggunaan benda-benda yang tersebar di seluruh kamarnya setelah diperintahkan untuk membersihkannya namun tidak melakukannya. Hukuman dalam hal ini tidak sembarangan (semena-menanya); hal ini menghasilkan hubungan dengan perilaku yang dapat dihukum.

Selama anak-anak berkembang dengan efektif, perubahan dapat dilihat pada penalaran moralnya. Perkembangan normatif mempengaruhi kemauan, dan penalaran otonom mempengaruhi moral dan kehidupan efektif dari anak operasional konkret. Anak-anak mengembangkan kemampuan untuk "mengadapasi pandangan orang lain," mempertimbangkan maksud, serta lebih baik beradaptasi dengan dunia sosial.

RINGKASAN

Tahap operasi konkrit adalah masa transisi antara pikiran praoperasional dan pemikiran formal (logis). Selama tahap operasional konkret, anak mencapai penggunaan operasi logis sepenuhnya untuk pertama kalinya. Pemikiran tidak lagi didominasi oleh persepsi, dan anak mampu memecahkan masalah yang ada atau telah ada berdasarkan pengalaman nya.

Anak pada tahap operasi konkrit dapat mengasumsikan sudut pandang orang lain, dan bahasa lisan adalah sosial dan komunikatif. Operasi intelektual penting yang berkembang adalah seriation dan klasifikasi yaitu operasi konkret yang melibatkan stimulus pengurutan di sepanjang dimensi kuantitatif (seperti panjang). Contoh : seoprang guru meletakkan delapan batang lidi dengan panjang yang berbeda-beda secara acak di atas meja. Guru kemudian meminta murid untuk mengurutkan batang itu berdasarkan panjangnya. Pemikir operasional konkret dapat secara bersamaan memahami bahwa setiap batang harus lebih panjang dari batang sebelumnya atau batang sesudahnya harus lebih pendek dari sebelumnya.

Berangkat dari penjelasan singkat atas tahap pengembangan anak yang penulis paparkan sebelumnya dan walaupun secara teoritis sangat menjanjikan, terdapat beberapa kelemahan dari teori piaget seperti (1) Pemikiran anak tidak se konsisten seperti yang piaget sarankan pada teorinya (2) Balita dan anak kecil pada kenyataannya lebih kompeten dari yang Piaget tahu,dan (3) Piaget mungkin baik dalam menggambarkan proses tapi seperti kehilangan sense ketika berbicara mengenai realisasinya (operasinya).

Background Analysis of Speech Styles Used by Young Female and Male

As a foreign language in Indonesia, English is not a native language nor as a second language in this country, which is taught as a school subject, often widely, but it does not serve as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country (in government, business, or industries). Teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) refers to teaching English to students whose first language is not English. TEFL usually occurs in the student's own country, either within the state school system, or privately, e.g., in an after-hours language school or with a tutor. EFL teacher or lecturer may be native or non-native speakers of English.

In this study, the word ‘lecturer’ will be used as a neutral term to refer to anyone who is teaching in English in the university. Thus, it refers to people who may have different titles in the university, such as professors, lecturers, and doctoral students, all of whom have one point in common: they all give lectures in English-medium programs. However the level of academic qualification need not be the most important qualification for EFL lecturers, but they also need to have effective classroom interaction. By having good classroom interaction, they can help students to develop their interaction skills and students themselves can apply various strategies to become effective communicators in a foreign language.

Classroom interaction connects both students and lecturers in process of teaching and learning EFL. Lecturers help students by requests in the classroom and provide them with comprehensible input. Not infrequently by the quantity of young lecturers spread over the universities in Indonesia, the lecturers deal with older students in a classroom. Therefore Andragogy, theory of educating adults in this practice may be applied.

Furthermore, it cannot be denied that lecturers can use some variations of language when they talk to students. That is called as speech style where specifically occured in spoken discourse. By the various style in spoken discourse, it will also influence the materials as the language choice merged with the content of the materials, where the material and the basis of teaching methodology are delivered on an ongoing basis.

The condition that the lecturers use various utterance in teaching EFL toward older students encourages the writer to analyze the speech styles contained in lecturers discourse in the context of teaching English lecture in College. Based on the explanation above, the researcher will conduct a qualitative research entitling: an Analysis of Speech Styles Used by Young Female and Male Lecturers in Teaching English to their Older Students at Islamic State College of Watampone

Authority and Language: An Analysis of Language Privilege

BACKGROUND

Different status of various kinds of people is a common phenomenon in the world. Sex, power, economy, ethnicity, and age are important factors that influence the dominance on range of groups. A strong group tends to have powerful authority among vulnerable group which the situation does not only become a chit-chat but a custom. It is inevitable that grouping people according to their social level has occurred and establish a system of social class. The effect of different qualification or status also spread in almost every element of human life, including a manner of speaking, style or linguistic features. For instance, a renowned professor is not expected to speak like a person who works in a private factory. A businessman can never use the beggars’ accent when talking to his friends and the driver’s government has no authority to speak to the president without restraint or viceversa. It is a clear distinction that the existence of semantics, syntax, phonology, phonetics, vocabulary or style also has a role to distinguish particular person and their position in the society. Therefore it can be easily to identify who belongs to which level.

Based on the latter case, certain groups organized by people who have powerful levels and in this research will deeply focus on language authority occur among individual or intellectuals who have the power to speak and respected by many people. Differences in rank or position in essence is often influence and determine the person's speaking style. Someone who has a higher position tend authoritative in conveying style of speech, when he said something, although only a single word, a subordinate will follow him without hesitant and this was seen as something natural. On the other hand, language as tool to communicate becoming much more complex phenomenon as it can be learned in order to become more authoritative in its practical (Milroy & Milroy, 1999). This becomes interesting discussion because not infrequently there are people who did not have a high position in the government or any agency but the use of language is often more listened to than people who have a high position in formal organization, in a concrete example illustrated when an individual tends to believe special individual (dignitaries honored in a community) rather than the Member of Parliament (have a power of the legislative function in a country). Speech codes in that situation became a permanent variety hereditary and thus the linguistic feature has gradually strong influences as a result of language Authority.

In educational context, it is nature that students want to study the language especially EFL (English as foreign language) at a major university, but the unique thing that arises when they learn to be more authoritative, it presents a system of authoritarian, namely habit differences in the language used by a fraction of a professor or influential lecturer in academic environment against his interlocutor that his colleague or his students as a low speaker status. Although the matter use of English in communicating in Indonesia country was minimal, but the linguistic features owned by professors certainly not least, considering they have been spending almost half of their life to learn the language and followed by the increase of students who want to learn English (EFL) with varying motives.

As a result of the development of sociolinguistic research in recent years, it has become possible that language phenomenon has grown and at the same time attracted more linguists to continue exploring the existence of the applied linguistic especially in education and not some cases that cultures may be especially affected by sociolinguistic demonstrations of authority. It has been also long recognized that students from a wide variety of cultural backgrounds express concern about their uncertainty and lack of control in social situations involving people in socially powerful positions. The students from different ethnic often being isolated because of discrimination they felt. “Are their faces so different? Do people think they can’t speak English? Moreover the students feel the sense of power distance between themselves and the school environment that do not create a bridge of understanding and competence for successful interaction.

However there only a few expert discussed the authority of language as their primary research, by that reason the researcher interested in investigating something which is largely unknown by using ethnography design where Mackay & Gass in Heigham & Sakui (2009) add that ‘Ethnographic approaches are particularly valuable when not enough is known about a context or situation’. Departing from the issue the researchers took the initiative to examine more deeply about the authority of language that occurs in daily life and all the parts that involved in educational context. The researcher also tried to find out their feelings, expectancies and presumptions to this diverse situation of language usage in the environment . Based on the explanation above, the researcher will conduct an ethnography research entitling Authority and Language: An Analysis of Language Privilege

Essential Questions in Philosophy

Philosophy, simply stated, is the experience of asking such grand questions about life, about what we know, about what we ought to do or believe in. It is the process of getting to the bottom of things, asking those basic questions about ideas that, most of the time, we simply take for granted, never think of questioning, and probably never put into words. We assume, for example, that some acts are right and some are wrong. Why? We know that it is wrong to take a human life. Why is this? Is it always so? What about in wartime? What about before birth? What about the life of a person who is hopelessly sick and in great pain? What if the world were so overcrowded that millions would die in one way if others did not die in another?

Furthermore, responding to these difficult questions, the answers will reveal a network of beliefs and doctrines that may never have articulated before we first found ourselves arguing about them. Not surprisingly, the first time an individual tries to argue about questions he or she has never before discussed, the result may be awkward, clumsy, and frustrating. That is the point behind philosophical questions in general: to teach us how to think about, articulate, and argue for the things we believe in, and to clarify these beliefs for ourselves and present them in a clear and convincing manner to other people, who may or may not agree with us. Very often, therefore, philosophy proceeds through disagreement, as when two philosophers or philosophy students argue with one another. Sometimes the dispute seems trivial or just a matter of semantics.

However, because what we are searching for a basic knowledge especially in accordance with philosophy of language, with that in mind, let’s begin the discussion with series of somewhat simple but straightforward questions, each of which is designed to think about the questions and express opinions by elaborating what the philosopher have achieved.

Below there are nine questions that the writer will try to elaborate each of them by providing the answer in the next section.

• What is Philosophy of Science?
• What is Philosophy of Language?
• What is Analytic Philosophy of Language?
• What is Philosophy?
• What is Ordinary Philosophy of Language?
• What are the major topics in Philosophy of Language?
• In what ways is Philosophy of Language different from Linguistic Philosophy, Philosophy of Linguistic, and Language Philosophy?
• Who are considered philosophers of language; and what are their major concerns or ideas?
• In what ways will your knowledge on Philosophy of Language contribute to your professional competence as a teacher and/or as a linguist?

Ethnography and Action Research

INTRODUCTION

A. Background

Research is a quest, an attempt to better understand the complex worlds we live in. It is an endeavor that can have the highest possible purpose to help others. In applied linguistics, this means helping language learners, teachers, researchers, materials writers, and program administrators gain a deeper understanding of the multifarious worlds of learning and teaching languages. Qualitative research has evolved over the past three decades into a broad body of knowledge. Within its domain is a wide range of approaches and methods that reflect not only the multiplicity of its root disciplines but also the diversity of contexts and purposes to which it is applied.

A qualitative to research generally involves the researcher in contact with participants in their natural setting to answer questions related to how the participants make sense of their lives. Qualitative researchers may observe the participants and conduct formal and informal interviews to further an understanding of what is going on in the setting from the point of view of those involved in the study. Ethnographic research shares these qualitative traits, but ethnographers more specifically seek understanding of what participants do to create the culture in which they live, and how the culture develops over time.

Qualitative and ethnographic research developed in education in the late 1970s. Ethnographic researchers drew on theory and methods in anthropology and sociology, creating a distinction between ethnography of education (work undertaken by anthropologists and sociologists) and ethnography in education (work undertaken by educators to address educational issues). Other forms of qualitative research drew on theories from the humanities and other social and behavioral sciences, adapting this work to educational goals and concerns, often creating new forms (e.g., a field method approach, interview approaches, and some forms of action research).

The term of Ethnography and Action Research in qualitative research always appear to be essential part of many qualitative discussion, however the research both action research and Ethnoghraphy have their own approach to deal with a certain problem in process of gaining better result. The Action Research for instance have a long story in its development, the research was coined by the social psychologist Kurt Lewin in the United States in about 1944 in connection with research which aimed to promote social action through democratic decision making and active participation of practitioners in the research process. The target group for Lewin's programme of action research was field workers who were trying to improve relations between minority groups in American society. Lewin believed that through action research advances in theory and much needed social change might simultaneously be achieved.

In addition there is a clear understanding that Ethnography research lies on the scope called culture and Action Research is undertaken in the field of workers, teachers, administrators or supervisors in order to change and improve their own practice. The process of each research will bring the researcher into deeper understanding toward the phenomena occur even in everyday practice. Based on this reason, further explanation will include the process of each research and underlining some of data processing both in Ethnography and Action Research.

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Common Errors in Academic Writing (CMIIW)

Here is the example;


    "The objectives of this research are (1) to find out whether the use of Students Team achievement Division (STAD) improve students’ achievement in writing skill at fourth semester of English department (2) to find out whether the use of STAD motivate the students in learning writing skill at fourth semester of English department. 
    This research employed quasi-experimental design. It used two groups, one received treatment STAD and the other group received GI. The subjects of this research were class F and G. These two classes were then taken randomly to represent them as experiment and control group. Class F was chosen as the experimental group consisted of 30 students, while class G was chosen as control group which consisted of 30 students. The data of this research was collected through writing test and questionnaire.
    The result of this research were (1) the use of STAD improved the writing achievement of the fourth semester students in experimental class. (2) The motivation of the fourth semester students as experimental class showed a great positive in learning writing by using STAD. It means that the fourth semester students were motivated in learning writing by using STAD. Most of the students agreed to use of STAD because it could built students’ confidence and finding ideas."

Try to analyze the paragraph and check your answer then compare with mine in this link (Incorrect Parts)

Buginese Perception: the Softness of Local Language in Bone

Local language which is also known as mother tongue has to be protected and always be maintained in process. As a part of a local culture and also as national precious wealth, local language has more complexity than people think. In Indonesia, the existence of local language has spread in whole territory. South Sulawesi for instance has various ethnics (Bugis, Makassar, Mandar and Toraja) and each of them use local dialect to show their identity. These four ethnics are the largest in South Sulawesi and one of the most interesting local languages to discuss is Bugis Bone. However, Bone has a fascinating language and continues to receive attention from expert because not even a few phenomenon that arise in a range of Bone dialect.

The Bugineses particularly in Bone is known will not kill the word by means they avoid the consonant letter at the end of words if possible. This is the reason of Buginese often experience excess-letters in pronounce a word. This term is often referred to ókkots by the Makassar young man. Ókkots often befall to Buginese because their speaking character prioritizes to the smoothness of utterance. When a word ends with consonant (huruf mati in Bahasa) it is revived by adding a vowel at the end of the utterance. This pattern can be obviously seen in the words of botol (bottle) and motor (motorcycle) in Bahasa, it becomes botolo (botol) and motoro (motor) in Bugis Bone. Another example, to refine the words in an utterance, it is also done by adding a consonant at the end, like the word amang instead of aman in Bahasa which mean safe, also the same pattern in word macan in Bahasa transform into macang which mean a tiger. This refinement is formed by considering the sound of the utterance. Basically if the words sound harsh, there will be a vowel or consonant to cover it in order to form a polite word. It is clearly described that a language can be powerful that it is treated like a live creature.

Buginese character is evidently reflected in language activities, they always put subtleties in language, trying to avoid a harsh expression and unpleasant word has always been attached to the language of Buginese especially in Bone. The interesting case occurs in when calling second person pronoun. Idi’ is used instead of using kamu in Bahasa. In Buginese literal translation, the word idi’ can be used to describe the word “you” and “we”, and commonly people in Bone use idi’ which truthfully means the subject of the speaker sees himself in other people. The same condition in Makassar, native speakers also use kita as second person pronoun “you” where in Bahasa kita means “we”. The egalitarianism or equality contained in the word of idi’ educates us that all people have the same position and have to be treated respectfully.

Local language as a mother tongue (L1) has many moral values in its existence. Buginese in Bone basically prioritize softness words and, and treat the letters which is the basic form language as well as possible. That is the rationale of Buginese in Bone perception try to avoid harsh words. Local language in Bone be an inherent identity and widely known in the community not only the uniqueness of his accent but more to bring nobleness like refining the words. By that reason, the pride of the language used must always be imparted to the next generation.

Kinds of Paragraph

      Here I share about some general paragraphs type and provide with simple examples. Hope this is useful  for your academic or scientific writing. I have also added some signal words inserted in each paragraph which indicate their paragraphs types. The most important is you have to remember that there are three basic part in paragraph, it is the Topic sentence (main idea) The supporting sentences (explaining the topic) and Concluding sentence (repeating the main idea or giving final comment about the topic). You can analyze each of the paragraph below and make your own paragraph based on this pattern..!!'
Correct me if the examples have any mistake. Your comment will be appreciated.

A. DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH

WIFI.id corner which is supported by Telkomsel become famous from its first launching, the internet spot mushroomed through over region of Indonesia. Unlike other wifi-hotspot (café or public spots) every laptop and smartphone are able to connect unlimited internet only by paying 5.000 IDR for vouchers or register via texting a message. It lasts until 12 hours with internet speed connection can reach over a hundred megabit per second. The places of Wifi.id corner can easily be found. Sometimes it is placed around the Telkom inc. and has some banners displayed with Telkomsel logo in it. However this innovative concept is introduced by Telkomsel as a famous cellular operator in Indonesia and working hard to fulfill the consumers need.

B. PROCESS PARAGRAPH

A good score mirrors a good student. If you want to get good score in an exam, there are many steps you can follow. Firstly, you should revise theories of all subjects. This step is very necessary because gives us an overall view and knowledge of all the subjects. You can revise theories by reading it text books. One important thing you should remember is that you should not learn new lesson before yotu handle learnt ones. Secondly sometimes in revising lessons, you may not understand them thoroughly. Don’t worry because thus step will help you overcome it. You should discuss with your friend or your teachers, if possible you can ask them to give you some exercises to make sure that you have a good understanding of the lesson. Thirdly do not forget to take care of yourself during the exam preparation. It is very important to be in good mental and physical condition for the exam. And the last thing is to keep a positive attitude about the exam as it is a way to demonstrate your knowledge but not as imposing challenge. If you follow three steps above, I believe that at least you will have a good score in the exam.

C. OPINION PARAGRAPH

I am a loner and a single fighter. I do not regret this condition because I like to be alone. Ordinary people look enjoy themselves as part of community but it doesn’t work in my personality. They always ask me to merge with other people in order to get new experience and communicate with a lot of fun. I don’t understand why I have to spend my time to talk with another people who I don’t even know them exactly and determining whether it is fun for me or not. It is my life and I do everything for myself and this leads my way. No one knows what is better for me than myself. I know what I can do and I know what I can’t do. For that reason I am alone because of my choice and do not disturb my privacy life.

D. FACT PARAGRAPH

Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the internet protocol to link the devices worldwide. By the mid of 1990 the internet had become a popular form of telecommunication for personal computer users. The dramatic growth in the number of persons using the network heralded the most important change in telecommunication since the introduction of television in 1940. By this fact, the sudden popularity of this communication technology raised many effects to whole aspect and it begins to conquer the country with the new era of technology.

E. COMPARE PARAGRAPH

I never realized how similar parents and their children can be. My father, a person I admire the most, has a habit of snapping his feet on the floor while watching a boxing channel in television. This I realized after watching him closely and my father did this habit for a long time. I do not know the reason of my father did that. He kept doing that habit until one day I tried to ask him. The one time I mentioned the behavior, my father looks embarrassed, and he tried for a while to break himself of the habit. Although I vowed never to develop any such quirk, I recently caught myself in the middle of watching soccer channel. I got frustrated because my team could not even try to score the goal. Spontaneously there was unfamiliar sound that bothered me a lot. After I realized, that was my feet who kept snapping like previously my father did. My father who accidentally near me had a quite respond although I knew that inside, he was laugh out loud. Both my father and I have the same habit after all. The lineage cannot deny. Now I know just how maddeningly similar parents and their children can be.

F. CONTRAST PARAGRAPH

My brother and I have different personality and interest. My older brother, Sammy has a neat habit in all the aspect of his life. The room organized perfectly so it looks peace when we watch the room either it’s from corner or front. The chair, the bookshelf, bed are put in order which could be easily to reach. Nothing messed order in Sammy’s room. Although he is a musician, the guitar and all of his music instruments look new because he always take care his own stuff. On the other hand, my life is not as easy as my brother. I am a soccer player and every day I have to wake up early to go to school after tiring-training at the night. I don’t’ have time to arrange my goods neatly, I just put my stuff where it fits although my room end with tight space inside. I am so busy that my club does not even have an off day in process. I cannot manage my time to other aspect and do perfect thing like my brother does. But I enjoy my life and it was fun to have different thing with my brother, at least we can share each other.

G. PROBLEM-SOLUTION PARAGRAPH

Drug is rife in many countries. Billions of dollars are spent internationally preventing drug use, treating addicts, and fighting drug-related crime. Although drugs threaten many societies, their effects can also be combated successfully. Drug abuse can cause multiple problems for countries and communities. The medical and psychological effects are very obvious. Addicts cannot functions normal members of society. They neglect or abuse their families, and eventually require expensive treatment or hospitalization. Huge police resources are needed to fight smuggling and dealing criminal gangs and mafia underworlds develop with the money from drugs. The menace of drugs can be fought. Education is the first battle. Children need to be told at home and in school about drugs. People need to be aware of the effects so they can avoid this problem. A second approach is to increase police manpower and create effective laws to stop dealers. However the main target should be the user. Although the problem of drugs may seem impossible to eliminate, there are concrete steps that can be taken to weaken the hold of drugs on society. The danger from drugs is too great to ignore for us and our children

Graduate Program of State University of Makasssar (Class C)

Behavior and Social Interaction in Social Networking

    Social networking is a concept that has introduced since the beginning of the humankind. Ever since humans began to colonize the earth, they have built, and preserving social ties. Through the course of time, social interactions have become more complex. Interactions and communications have grown and expanded through over the world with different ways. One of the most innovative is the internet. The computational neuroscientist, Terrence J. Sejnowsky (2016) stated Internet as an extension of human brain which has omnivorous appetite for information and social interaction. Over a decade, the internet has made a possibility for persons to keep in touch no matter whenever and wherever they may be in this earth. This endless interaction provides opportunities to change the way of human life and moreover the world.

    In recent year, it is not too grandiose to say that popular social networking sites have conquered almost all the population of human being around the world. Men, women, white, blacks, young and even old man are more likely spending their time to online. According to online statistics portal (Statista: 2016) there are 21 most visited social networking sites including in Smartphone apps. The statistics showed Facebook.com as the most visited site to surpass 1.5 billion monthly active users, and WhatsApp standing at the second rank with 1 billion users. Due to a constant presence in the lives of their users, social networks have a decidedly strong social impact.

    Despite that social networking have penetrated in all the aspect of human life, sparse literature explains the behavior aspect in depth about the context of interaction through internet. Since talking about the virtual world, it is not only using oral in online interaction but normally the users express their existence with written form, where people just generally share or post with their written typing on keyboard. Unlike the oral, the written communication has more complexity to investigate. This condition continues to receive attention from expert. It happened because not even a few cases that arise because of the intimacy between the users and social networking sites involved their written language.

    The social networking have received a lot of media attention in the past few years, notably in 2008 the terrorist in Mumbai used twitter as a medium of information. But in another condition the twitter users helped some victims to get some blood donors by writing pleas and spread them at their timeline.

    However misinformation and some rumors can rapidly spread on social media particularly with a simple writing, sometimes user of social networking judges the writing as an offensive statement but sometimes comes with normal respond depending on the readers. Fundamentally, the social networking is created to connect people in order to get interaction in their community and there are various behaviors to have rooted in the social networking since its expansion. Furthermore to investigate these behaviors, it has to be involving the intimacy between the user and the social networking sites, by means of that condition it is enormously possible that people who are in social interaction can influence one another (Sharad cited in Centola, 2013:83).

    Based on the circumstance, the intent of this investigation is to examine, do social interaction in social networking sites separate people and truncate their relationships? And are there benefits related with being connected to other individual or community in social networking?

Simple Paraphrasing

Original Text (based on Language and Gender Book by Mary M. Talbot)


Other languages have very different pronoun systems. The Japanese one is complicated by the existence of distinct levels of formality and the need to take into account the status of the person you are talking to in deciding which level to use. There is a range of different words for the first person pronoun, I for instance. There are formal pronouns which can be used by both women and men: watashi and the highly formal watakushi. Less formally, atashi is used only by woman, boku traditionally only by men (there is also another form, ore, available to men if they want to play up their masculinity). Choice of pronoun depends here on the sex of the speaker not the addressee. That is, if you are a woman you must use the “female” pronoun form and if you are a woman you must use the “female” pronoun form and if you are a man you must choose from the “male” forms. Japan does appear to be undergoing change. Girls in Japanese high schools say that they use the first-person pronoun boku, because if they use atashi they cannot compete with the boys (Okamoto 1995: 314).


Paraphrase


Mary (2003:4) stated that the Japanese have an unusual language scheme. A wide variety of conversations can be distinguished between woman and man, both formal and informal. There are some fundamental differences when two different gender talking to each other. It is man and woman when they mention the word I or the first person pronoun. Although there is a common choice for mentioning I for men and also for women, such as Watashi and the highly formal Watakushi, nevertheless in a country whose population extensively using informal language, the use of I differentiated, for instance Atashii is only for women and Boku intended only for men. For the highly informal among manliness, the men in Japan often use the pronoun I with Ore. By the fact of unwritten rules that each different gender has their own language, it proved that the Japanese appreciate their own culture by keep preserving it, though in another condition, as Mary cited in Okamoto (2003: 4) the women want to familiarize themselves in the circle that involving mix gender, in this circumstance rather than using Atashii, they prefer to use Boku.

The Same Time (a light novel prototype-

Aktor Johny Deep pernah berkata if you really love two people at the same time, choose the second one, because if you really love the first one you wouldn’t have fallen for the second. Kebanyakan orang mungkin sedikit berbeda dengan penafsirannya. Umumnya;jika seseorang mencintai dua orang dalam waktu yang sama maka pilih yang kedua, namun pertanyaannya yang kedua itu siapa? Quote sebelumnya sama sekali tidak menyebutkan siapa yang pertama maupun yang kedua. Logisnya jika diperhatikan, quote itu bukan focus pada kalimat pertama tapi dikalimat yang kedua. Jika dipisahkan dan berdiri sendiri maka akhir dari kalimat kedua you wouldn’t have fallen for the second one akan meruntuhkan kalimat you really love two people, maksudnya orang itu tidak benar-benar menyukai kedua orang tersebut, maka ditambahkan if untuk really love menandakan jika seandainya yang hakikatnya hanya seperangkat dari kata munafik, semacam menolak takdir atau membuat sesuatu yang jelas salah tapi dibenarkan. Selanjutnya yang dimaksud the second one ini sebenarnya siapa? Sekali lagi ini cuma logika jadi maaf jika membuat para translator, interpreter atau apapun itu kecewa dengan kesimpulan ini. The second one kemungkinan besarnya adalah orang ketiga yang independent. Yang tersingkat dan sesingkat-singkatnya Jatuh Cinta Hanya Berlaku pada Satu Orang Saja. Perasaan yang sebenarnya ada disaat cinta pada pandangan pertama dan itu bukan hanya sebatas pandangan melainkan perasaan. Jika muncul dua orang yang membuat jantungmu berdetak tidak normal percayalah mereka tidak pantas untuk mu karena kamu sendiri yang keliru, dicari dan mencari itu keadaanmu sehingga kau menemukan yang pantas untukmu.

Ini hanya sebagian kecil dari kisahku sebagai orang yang teramat bodoh yang hanya menghabiskan waktu untuk bertindak naïf menyerahkan segalanya pada nasib, membiarkan waktu berlalu tanpa sedikitpun berarti. Yang pada akhirnya membuatku menyesal. Ingin rasanya ku kembali melihat orang ketiga itu hidup sembari tersenyum melihat kebodohanku sebagai kepolosan, ingin sekali ku mengabulkan impiannya dikala masa yang lain muncul dan memberikan secercah harapan yang tergores di lembaran terakhirnya. . . .


A paper Scratch written-aku selalu**** aku ingin hidup bersamamu dan selalu ingin bersamamu walau inderaku tak bisa melihatmu, aku berharap agar senyumku bisa aku bagi untuk kebahagiaanmu.

Prons and Cons In English Teaching

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7 Hantu legendaris di Sulawesi Selatan

Hantu adalah hal-hal yang sangat sulit untuk terpisakan budaya dan kepercayaan masyarakat Indonesia. Begitu banyak jenis mitos tentang jenis dan bentuk hantu yang ada di benak publik. bahkan tidak jarang di antara hantu digunakan sebagai karakter dalam film.Tidak sedikit di provinsi Sulawesi Selatan. Ada beberapa hantu terkenal dan melegenda di masyarakat lingkungan Sulawesi Selatan. Hantu legendaris dan terkenal bukan karena cerita-cerita yang diturunkan dari orang tua pendahulu, dan kadang-kadang untuk verifikasi oleh beberapa orang.Berikut adalah 7 Hantu yang legendaris di Sulawesi Selatan.
1. PARAKANGMakhluk ini dipercaya menjadi seseorang yang dapat berubah menjadi hewan, benda dan apa bentuk dan gaya yang aneh dan menyeramkan, yang berbeda dari aslinya. Jadi jangan heran jika ada panggilan sebagai hantu.Misalnya, ia berubah menjadi anjing, hasil anjing inkarnasi parakang manusia ilmu berbeda dari anjing yang nyata, perbedaannya adalah hasil dari inkarnasi tidak memiliki ekor dan kaki anjing di belakang lebih tinggi. Jelmaanya juga bisa berubah menjadi kucing, babi, kambing. dan hewan lainnya. Yang membedakan dia tidak memiliki kepala / ekor.Selain berubah menjadi binatang, kadang-kadang Parakang juga dapat diubah menjadi pabrik dan conttohnya benda berubah menjadi pohon pisang dan ayam bertelur Jika Anda melihat pohon pisang dewasa daun hanya 2, tidak tunas dan daun tidak melebihi tiga helai. Kemudian orang Sulawesi selatan percaya bahwa angka itu Parakang.Menurut mitos, Jika Anda melihat hewan atau inkarnasi dari Parakang, dan Anda ingin memukulnya. Memakai satu potong sapu dan kebadanya memukul. Ingat ketika anda menekan hanya satu kali saja. Hal ini diyakini oleh orang tua di Sulawesi Selatan mampu membuat cukup dari Parakang itu. INGAT! Tidak melebihi 1 kali, bahkan lebih Ketika kita memukul target pasar.masyarakat Sulawesi percaya bahwa untuk membedakan Parakang rumah dengan non Parakang mudah. Biasanya, di atas pintu dari orang-orang yang memeluk Parakang Sciences, ada pola segitiga. Yang mengatakan, segitiga yang nantinya akan digunakan sebagai pintu keluar dan pintu masuk parakang.Konon parakang ini sangat berbahanya, dapat membawa orang yang sakit atau bayi. Parakang Sains dapat diperoleh dengan keturunan dan juga dapat diperoleh dari orang tersebut. Biasanya digunakan untuk kepentingan kekayaan, harta biak, dan juga untuk mendapatkan kanuragan atau sihir. 
2. POPPOPoppo ini adalah jenis orang untuk terbang, yang diperoleh dari keturunan. Orang yang menganut ilmu Poppo percaya lincah dalam bekerja di siang hari, mata selalu merah, seperti meludah-ludah.Menurut ketereangan masyarakat, bahwa Poppo bisa terbang. Dan tempat favoritnya adalah di atap rumah.Dikatakan bahwa ketika malam pria Poppo akan menemukan lalat buah atau mangsa lainnya. Dan sebelum terbang, ia terus menggambarkan ususnya di Rakkiyang (lantai atas rumahnya. Toko gandum) dan biasanya di pintu belakang.Ada dua jenis pertama sallang Poppo Poppo, ini salah satu jenis berbahanya karena dapat memangsa orang yang sakit.Kedua mandala Poppo, spesies ini tidak berbahanya karena dia hanya mencari buah di malam hari. 
3. DOMPE 'Angka ini menurut masyarakat adalah orang bertubuh kecil dengan dua telinga yang sangat luas. Ear bahwa ia akan gunakan untuk terbang. hantu ini populer di Bugis Bone. 
4. TALLU ANATallu Ana adalah seseorang wanita semangat yang muncul saat kabut turun, katanya Tallu Ana suka menyembunyikan anak kecil, ini bukan apa-apa tentang, cuman di sembunyikan.Dan di daerah Sinjai Barat sering ada anak kecil bersembunyi oleh Tallu Ana, dan mereka biasanya menyembunyikan anak-anak di hutan selama tiga hari. 
5. belenggu PANCINGMemancing kulit dikatakan hidup di pegunungan Bawakaraeng. Memancing membelenggu memiliki kelompok di menyatroni Desa-desa malam itu. Grop batang belenggu itu sendiri, terdiri dari ikan sikongkong sendiri (Dog stealth) Bird siluman, diam-diam dan sipenunggang kuda kuda adalah bos dari siluman.Stealth biasanya disebut Tu Mappilelea atau menyebar, yang berarti bahwa bencana menyebarkab di malam hari 
6. CABIUIni adalah hantu sosok Cabiu anak kecil berRambut panjang, kata Ciabiu Bayi yang dibuang oleh ibunya. Cabiu jadi sangat takut dengan ibunya, dan dia mencintai ayahnya sebalikknya nya.Bahkan saya pernah mendengar cerita dari orang tua, itu adalah bentuk hantu Cabiu hanya Head dengan rambut panjang tanpa tubuh, dan memiliki usus yang menggantung di kepala. Dia diyakini mampu terbang sangat cepat. Dan dapat muncul pada malam aaupun. 
7. KANDOLENGAdalah sosok hantu wanita kulit putih yang pynggungnya belubang. Mungkin hampir sama dengan KUNTILANAKNYA Jawa. Kandoleng telah berubah sebagai faktor ketakutan di kalangan masyarakat Sulawesi Selatan, khususnya di Bugis Bone. suara khas, itu akan membuat orang merasa takut.
Ketika isu prevalensi Kandoleng beredar, bahkan anak-anak kecil tidak diperbolehkan keluar pada malam hari oleh orang tua mereka. Mereka hanya diperbolehkan untuk bermain di luar sampai sore. Karena mereka takut, akan memangsa anak-anak Kandoleng mereka.Kemunculan kandoleng lumrahnya di pohon-pohon berbatang besar dan berdaun.
Biasanya untuk menangkal hantu ini, masyarakat menggunakan Sticks (Adidi Inru ') untuk mengusir dia. Mereka percaya bahwa dengan memegang tongkat, maka Kandoleng takut dan tidak berani mendekati. Cara lain yang umum digunakan oleh masyarakat adalah menggantun serangkaian tusukan bawang dan biasanya ditempatkan di atas pintu masuk rumah. Dengan begitu Kandoleng tidak akan bisa masuk ke dalam rumah.
Jadi 7 Hantu yang berasal dari Tanah Sulawesi selatan, Bahkan hantu sudah dikenal di luar Sulawesi, seperti di Kalimantan, Jawa dan Sumatera. Semoga bermanfaat!

Ethnic And Racial Diversity In The United States

The population of the United States include a large variety of ethnic groups coming from many races, nationalities, and religions. The process by which these many groups have been made apart of a common cultural life with commonly shared values is called assimilation. Scholars disagree as to the extent to which assimilation has occurred in the United States. United States also described as a melting pot where various racial and ethnic groups have been combined into one culture. Others are inclined to see the United States as a salad bowl where the various groups have remained somewhat distinct and different from one another, creating a richly diverse country.


The truth probably lies somewhere between the two views. Since 1776, an enormous amount of racial and ethnic assimilation has taken place in the United States, yet some groups continue to feel a strong sense of separateness from the culture as a whole. Many of these groups are really bicultural. That is, they consider themselves Americans, but they may also wish to retain the language and sometimes the cultural traditions of their original culture.


People of Hispanic origin were on the North American continent before settlers arrived from Europe in the early 1600s. In Florida and the southwest, Spanish and Latin American settlements were established centuries before the thirteen colonies joined together to form the United States in the late 1700s. Because of their long history and the continued influx of newcomers into the established communities, many Hispanics, or Latinos, have taken a special pride in maintaining their cultural traditions and the use of the Spanish language.


Generally speaking, over the years whites from different national and religious backgrounds have been gradually assimilated into the larger American culture, with some exception. For sexample, american Jews are one group who have traditionally retained a strong sense of group identity within the larger culture. This may be a result of the long history of persecution in the Christian countries in Europe, the weaker forms of discrimination and anti-Jewish feeling that have sometimes existed in the United States, and their own strong feeling of ethnic prode. Yet along with their own group identity, American Jews have a strong sense of being a part of the larger American culture.


The Establishment of the Dominat Culture


The first census of the new nation, conducted in 1790, counted about 4 million people, most of whom were white. Of the white citizens, more than eight out of ten traced their ancestry back to England. African americans made up a suprising 20 percent of the population, an all-time high. There were close to 700.000 slaves and about 60,000 “free negroes.” Only a few Native American who paid taxes were included in the census count, ut the total Native American Population was probably about 1 Million.


It was the white population that had the greater numbers, the money, and he political power in the new nation, and therefore this majority soon defined what the dominant culture would be. At the time of the American revolution, the white population was largely English in Origin, protestant, and the middle-class. Such Americans are sometimes referrred to as “WASPs” (white anglo-saxon protestants); however, many people now consider this an insulting term. Their characteristics became the standard for judging other groups. Those having a different religion (such as the Irish Catholics), or those speaking a different language (such as the Germans, Dutch, and Swedes), were in the minority and would be disadvantaged unless they became assimilated. In the late 1700s this assimilation occured without great difficulty. According to histroians Allan Nevins and Henry Steele Commager, “English, Irish, German,....Dutch, Swedish-mingled and intermarried with little thought of any difference.”


The dominant American culture that grew out of the nation’s early history, then, was English-Speaking, western European, Protestant, and middle-class in character. It was this dominant culture that establishe what became the traditional values described by Tocqueville in the early 1830s. Immigrants with these characteristics were welcome, in part because Americans believed that support to the basic values of the ominat culture, such as freedom, equality of opportunity, and the desire to work hard for a higher material standard of living.


The Assimilation of Non-Protestan and Non-Western Europeans


As is the case in many cultures, the degree to which a minority group was seen as different from the characteristics of the dominat majority determined the extent of that group’s acceptance. Althought immigrants who were like the eralier settlers were accepted, those with significantly different characteristics tended to be viewed as a threat to traditional American Values and way of life.


This was particularly true of the immigrants who arrived by the millions during the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries. Most of them came from poverty-stricken nations of the southern and eastern Europe. They spoke language other thant English, and large numbers of them were Catholics or Jews.


Americans at the time were very fearful of this new flood of immigrants. They were afraind that these people were so accustomed to lives of poverty and dependence that they would not understand such traditional American values as freedom, self-reliance, and competition. There were so many new immigrants that they might even change the basic values of the nation in undesirable ways.


Americans tried to meet what they saw as a threat to their values by offering English instruction for the new immigrants and citizenship classes to teach them basic American beliefs. The immigrants, however, often felt that their American teachers disapproved of the traditions of their homeland. Moreover, learning about American values gave them little help in meeting their most important needs, such as employment, food, and a place to live.


The fact that the United States had rapidly expanding economy at the turn of the century made it possible for these new immigrants, often with the help of the bosses, to better their standard of living in the United States. As a result of these new opportunities and new rewards, immigrants came to accept most of the values of the larger American culture and were in turn accepted by the great majority of Americans. For white ethnic groups, therefore, it has generally been true that their feeling of being a part of the larger culture-that is American- has usually been stronger than their feeling of belinging to a separate ethnic group-Irish, Italian, Polish, etc.


The African-American Experience


The process of assimilation in the United States has been much more succesful for white ethnic groups thant for non-white ethnic groups. Of the non-white ethnic groups, American of African descent have had the greatest difficulty in becoming assimilated into the larger culture. African Americans were brought to the United States against their will to be sold as slaves. Except for the American Indian tribes who inhabited the United States before the first white settlers arrived, other ethnic groups came to America Voluntary-most as immigrants who wanted to better their living conditions.


The enslavement of African Americans in the United States was a complete contradiction of such traditional basic American values as freedom and equality of opportunity. It divided the United States into two increasingly different sections: the southern states, in which black slavery became the basis of the economy, and the southern states, which chose to make slavery against the law.


A minority of African American in the United States was a complete contradiction of such traditional basic American values freedom an equality of opportunity. It divided the United States into two increasingly different sections: the southern states, in which black slavery became the basis of the economy, and the northern states, which chose to make slavery against the law.


A minority of whites in the North insisted that slavery and freedom could not exist together in a free country and demanded that slavery be abolished, even if this meant war with the South. A much larger number of northern whites people inly, but they were afraid that black slavery would eventually take away their economic freedom. If, for example, the slave system of the South were allowed to spread into the frontier regions of the west, poor and middle-income whites could no longer look to the western frontier as a land of equality and opportunity where people could better their position in life. Rather, whites could have ti compete with unpaid slave labour, a situation that they believed would degrade their work and lower their social status.


Abraham Lincoln was able to become president of the United States by appealing to both the white idealists who saw slavery as an injustice to African American and to the larger numbers of northern whites who saw slavery as a threat to themselves/ Lincoln’s argument was that if black slavery continued to spread westward, white freedom and equality would be threatened. Lincoln also believed that basic ideals such as freedom and equality of opportunity had to apply to all people, black and white, or they would not last as basic American values.


Hen Lincoln won the presidency in 1860s, the southern states left the Union and tried to form a new nation of their own based on slavery. A civil war (1861 – 1865) between the North and South resulted, which turned out to be the bloodiest and most destructive of all the nation’s wars. When the North was finally victorious, black slavery ended in the United States.


Back in the 1830s, Tocqueville predicted trouble between blacks and whites in the United States


These two races are fastened to each other without intermingling; and they are unable to separate entirely or to combine. Although the law may abolish slavery ,God alone can obliterate the traces of its existence.


Although slavery was abolished in the 1860s, its legacy continued and African Americans were not readily assimilated into the larger American culture. Most remained in the South, where they were not allowed to vote and were legally segregated from white. Black children were not allowed to attend white public schools, for example, and many received an inferior education that did not give them an equal opportunity to compete in the white-dominated society. Many former slaves and their families became caught in a cycle of poverty that continued for generations. Although condition were much worse in the segregated South, blacks continued to be the victims of strong racial prejudice in the North as well.


The Civil Rights Movement of the 50s and 1960s


This state of affairs remained unchanged until the United States Supreme Court declared in 1954 that racially segregated public schools did not provide equal educational opportunities for black Americans and were therefore illegal. Black leaders throughout the United States were greatly encouraged by this decision. They decided to try to end racial segregation in all areas of American life.


The most important of these leaders was Martin Luther King Jr., a black protestant minister with a great gift for inspiring people. From the late 1950s until his assasinnation by a white gunman in 1968, King led thousands of people in nonviolent marches and demonstrations against segregation and other forms of racial discrimination. King’s goal was to bring about greater assimilation of black people into the larger American culture. His ideas were largely developed from basic American Values. He wanted greater equality of opportunity and “freedom now” for his people. He did not wish to separated his people from American society, but rather to gain for them a larger part in it.


Some black leaders, such as Malcolm X, urged a rejection of basic American values and complete separation of blacks from the white culture. Malcolm X believed that American values were nothing more than “white men’s values” used to keep blacks in an inferior position. Blacks must separate themselves from whites, by force if necessary, and build their own society based on values which they would created for themselves. Because he saw Christianity as a “white” religion, Malcolm turned to a faith based on Islam, and he became a leader of the “black Muslim” faith (founded in 1930). The great majority of American blacks, however, shared Martin Luther King’s Protestant religious beliefs and his goal of assimilation rather than separation. Most African Americans continued to look to King as their leader.


The civil rights laws of the 1960s helped to bring about a significant degree of assimilation of blacks into the larger American culture. Most important, the laws eventually helped to reduce the amount of white prejudice toward black people in all parts of the country. A federal program called affirmative action required employers to actively seek black workers and universities to recruit black students. As a result of the civil rights laws and affirmative action, the number of African Americans attending the nation’s college and universities, holding elective public office, and earning higher income increased dramatically, in the late 1960s. In 1984 and 1988, Jesse Jackson, a black leader who had worked with King in the 1960s, became the first African Americans to run for president of the United States. Although he did not win, he received significant national attention and greatly influenced the policies of the Democratic Party. African American are now mayors of major cities and members of Congress; they hold offices in all levels of government-local, state, and national.


An American Paradox


The civil rights movement benefited not only African American, but all minorities in the United States-American Indians, Hispanics, and Asians. Racial discrimination in employment and housing was forbidden by law. The civil rights laws also advanced the rights of women, and these laws have reinforced the ideal of equality of opportunity for all Americans.


However, there is a paradox, Although the amount of diversity in the United States continues to grow with each census, the 2000 census revealed the segregation according to race and ethnicity has persisted to a much larger degree than many Americans had realized. On the one hand, most young Americans say they would have no problem being friends with or even marrying someone of a different race or ethnic background. Polls show that the vast majority of Americans believe that segregation is a bad thing. On the other hand, races and ethnic groups still tend to live in segregated communities. This has been a trend in the cities, and as minority groups have moved into the suburbs the rend has continued. Ethnically diverse neighborhoods do of course exist and are certainly chosen by a number of Americans, However these neighborhoods are the exception, rather than the rule.


Sociology professor John Logan has studied this phenomenon and reports that the 2000 census founf the United States as segregated a nation as it has ever been. “the Majority of Americans,” Logan found, “are living i neighbourhoods that continue to separate whites from blacks, Latinos, and people of Asian descent. In fact, the same colour barrier that has dominated urban communities for decades has now spread to our fast-growing suburbs, where people of color tend to congregate in neighborhoods and housing developments apart from whites.” Morover, Logan sees this trend continuing into the future;


We need to be aware that segregation is not going by itself. And that it hasn’t been solved by the growth of the black middle class, the softening of white attitudes on race, or the laws that prohibits racial discrimination in housing. These are all factors that might have had a positive effect on segregation, and the assumption has been that they must have had an effect. But its very important to realize that they have not.


Is it a bad thing if groups of people choose to live in communities with others of their race or ethnic background? Shouldn’t individuals have the freedom to live wherever and near whomever they want? Ethnic communities often provide valuable support to new immigrants, with their native-language newspapers and ethnic restaurants and grocery stores. Most white Americans, particularly those in and near cities, enjoy international food and many participate in cultural festivals from all over the world. They see this diversity as enriching their lives.


But there is a negative side to this picture. The bad news is that there is still a gulf between different racial and ethnic groups. Although African Americans represent about 12 percents of the population, they are still grossly under-represented in Congress, and the same is true of Hispanics. The median income of a married black or Hispanics man working full-time is still significantly less than that of a married white man. Segregation and discrimination are against the law, but residential patterns create largely segregated neighborhood schools, particularly in many urban areas. Whites are more likely than blacks and Hispanics to live in the suburbs, where the neighborhood schools are usually in better condition and offer a better education. Many blacks and other ethnic minorities in the inner city are trapped in cycle of poverty, unemployment, violence, and despair. Blacks are the most frequent victims of violent crime, and as many as one in five young males may have a criminal record. More black and Hispanic children than white children live in poverty and many have only one parent at home.


On the other hand, American continue to believe strongly in the ideal of equality of opportunity and to search for ways to give everyone an equal chance at success. The American Dream still attracts immigrants and inspires people of all races and ethnic backgrounds. In reality, some immigrant groups have more success than others. As one would expect, history shows that immigrants who come with financial resources, a good educational background, and the necessary work skills are likely to do the best. For example, immigrants from the Middle East tend to have a higher socioeconomic level than the average white American. So do Asians, as a group. However, those who come without financial resources and a strong educational background do not do as well.


Today, immigrants with all kinds of backgrounds and skill levels find their way to the United States. Some of them are highly educated and they may find employement in fields such as technology, medicine, and science. Others may come from poor rural or urban areas and have a limites education. Many of these are young people who risk their lives to come without documentation to do agricultural or construction work. Others find work as Janitors, maids, or nannies. Often, they are paid less than a documented worker would be. However, what they are able to earn in dollars and send back to their countries can support many family members there. Many of these individuals do not want to become U.S. citizens; they only wish is to be able to work here. Americans are trying to find ways to accomodate these workers, while still protecting the interest of U.S. citizens.


A Universal Nation


It is important to remember that the dominant culure and its values system established by the early settlers had its roots in white, Protestant, western europe. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, millions of immigrants came from eastern and southern Europe, bringing cultural traditions perceived by the dominant culture as quite different. By the 1920s, Americans had decided that it was time to close the borders to mass immigration, and the number of new immigrants slowed to a trickle. In spite of the worries of those in the dominant culture, the new immigrants assimilate to life in the United States. They greatly enriched the cultural diversity of the nation, and they ultimately di not cause major changes to its system of government, its free enterprise system, or its traditional values.


In 1965, the United States made important changes in its immigration laws, allowing many more immigrants to come and entirely eliminating the older laws’ bias in favour of white European immigrants. As a result, the United States now takes in large numbers of new immigrants who are non-white and non-Europeans. The majority are from Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. In addition to the large numbers of legal immigrations, for the first time the United States has significant numbers of immigrants without legal documentation. Many worry about what the impact will be on American society. Can the American economy offer these new immigrants the same opportunities that others have had? What will be the effect on the traditional value system that has defined the United States for over 200 years?


Perhaps the United States will be described not as melting pot or salad bowl, but as mosaic-a picture made up of many tiny pieces of different colors. If one looks closely at the nation, the individuals of different colors and ethnic groups are still distinct and recognizable, but together they create a picture that is uniquely American. E Pluribus unum- the motto of the United States from its beginning-means “one composed of many.” Out of many, one






REFERENCES:


Datesman, Maryanne Kearny,. Crandall JoAnn,. Kearny, N Edward, American Ways, an Introduction to American Culture, Third Edition. New York Pearson education. Inc. 2005