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Multimodal Perspectives of University Students’ Language Attitudes towards Languages of Instruction in EFL Clasroom Discourse: Revealing Meaning through Integrated Semiotic Resources

This study is about Multimodal Discourse Analysis in an EFL (English Foreign Language) classroom involving both students and teacher discourse. Drawing from the perspective of multimodality, this study examines; how do students’ language attitudes and languages of instruction of the teacher integrated in classroom interaction. The writer’s interest is the interpretation of semiotic resources, including oral language, gestures, and visual products as meaning making within the classroom. The results will facilitate both researchers and educators in the future to examine the multimodal instructional design in terms of its effectiveness for EFL classroom.


A. Previous Researches Finding


Many researchers had reported the alternatives way to show students’ language attitudes and teaching instructional in EFL clasroom. Some of other aspects related to research findings that closely related to this study as follows;


a. Webster, Mavies, Timothy, and Cordial (2012) conducted study that was aimed to investigate influence of language attitudes of secondary school teachers and students on their choices as to whether Shona as language policy in Zimbabwe can be used as medium of instruction in secondary schools. The attitude of principal users and implementers of language change has been examined. Their finding showed that the majority of secondary school teachers and students prefer using English to Shona as medium of instruction. They finally assume that attitudes of users regarding the proposed language innovation, negatively affect the implementation of the proposed change. The similarity between Webster et al. (2012) study and the writer’s study is that; it involves both students language attitudes and teacher instructional language. The difference can be clearly seen at the method of collecting data. The data from Webster et al. (2012) research were collected and organized into graphs and tables which is the result of questionnaire for interpretation of teachers and students’ language attitude, and this study itself concern about Discourse Analysis in the perspectives of Multimodality where video data as a representation of the whole environment in classroom or the spatial arrangement of objects, which includes visual communication and the material combine with visual, written, spoken and gestural modes..


b. A thesis by Assefa (2002) investigated students' attitude towards Sidama language as a medium of instruction and its determination on the language achievement. By using questionnaires to measure their inclination towards the native language instruction, he suggests that teachers and educational practitioners should give due attention to attitude and motivation during instruction besides the cognitive factors. It is obvious that there is similarity of Assefa (2002) research to the writer’s research that both researches are under investigation of students’ attitudes toward the language of instruction but in in the writers’s study, it is more focussed on English and Indonesian alternately used as medium of instruction in classroom context. Multimodal interaction wil be analyzed in details.


In sum, this study is quite different with the others as mentioned above since none of the latter researchers have used Multimodal Discourse Analysis (MDA) as their primary approach. The writer hopes that the result of this study is expected to give new perception about students’ language attitudes and language of instruction used by teachers, principally in English Language Learning (ELL) process, and particularly in Indonesian area.


B. Review of Related Literature


Since the study specifically for multimodal perspective and simultaneously addresses several issues, including multimodality, educational context, students’ language attitude, language of instruction, and classroom discourse, the literature review is divided into two sections: Multimodal Discourse Analysis which covers researches point of view of several issues related to writer’s study, and Clasroom Discourse which covers students’ language attitude and teaching instructional.


1. Multimodal Discourse Analysis


Another area of Discourse Analysis that has commonly been approached is multimodal discourse analysis (Hencefort MDA). MDA is introduced by Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen (1996, 2006) and Michael O’Toole (1994, 2010) who originally provided the foundations for multimodal research in the 1980s (O’Halloran, 2011). This research has expanded in mid-2000s onwards as systemic linguists and other language researchers became increasingly interested in exploring the integration of language with other resources. There was an explicit acknowledgement that communication is inherently multimodal and that literacy is not confined to language.


MDA procedures acknowledge meaning not only to written discourse, but also to visual images. Theorists such as Ferdinand Saussure believed that signs had a role in society and were part of social life. According to Saussure in Gonzalez (2011), a sign consisted of a signified (our concept and definition of the sign) and a signifier (the actual picture and its meaning).


Bower and Hedberg (2010) stated that Multimodal discourse analysis is an increasingly important technique for analyzing contemporary learning contexts because it attends to the multiplicity of modes of communication that may be active. In contrast to single channel discourse analysis techniques where one mode of communication is considered (as is the case with text-chat transcripts), multimodal discourse analysis allows all modes of communication to incorporate into an analysis. Where many channels of communication are being used, only analyzing a subset suffers the risk of leaving out much of what is being communicated which can potentially result in incomplete or inaccurate conclusions.


In short, Multimodal Discourse Analysis is where language and many modes (resources) are integrated to create meaning. From the perspective of a producer of the information, we can descibe the modes in form of Head movements in which information about feedback, acknowledging, agreeing, rejecting and turn-taking, Gaze which is information about attitudes like interest, Pupil size indicates increased or decreased interest, Lip, arms and hands movements, Posture which is about attitudes like shyness or aggression. Distance which indicate friendliness and "closeness". And the linguistics such as spoken and non-linguistic sounds about specific types of activity or about specific tasks within an activity.


a. The Nature of Meanings in Multimodality


Multimodal discourse analysis draws upon systemic functional linguistics to deconstruct the types of meaning that occur within the communications that transpire. Types of meaning including the three distinct ‘metafunctions’ which are consisted of; Ideational Meaning, ideas about the world involved Experiental and Logical Meaning, Interpersonal Meaning or enactment of social relations and Textual Meaning, organization of the meaning as coherent text and units (O’Halloran, 2011).


As resources, the interpersonal, ideational and textual elements form a system of meaning making that allow discourse to be formed through the discursive flow they enable. Modalities can represent all three types of meaning (Jewitt, 2008). For instance, in the visual mode ideational meaning is purveyed using narrative representations (that show the unfolding of actions, events, or processes of change) or conceptual representations (that relay the generalized, categorical and stable characteristics of elements). The visual mode can be used to deliver interpersonal meaning by depicting relationships between viewers. Finally, the placement of elements in a composition can affect the information value they have in the context, influencing the textual meaning (Jewitt, 2008). It is clear that, we employ many activities (modes) in the process of communication and interaction since we live socially.


In addition to the process of communication, specific means of the way humans communicate have been subdivided by expert (Allwood, 2002) in this area it consist of three means of communication;


1) Primary: Primary means of expression are means of communication that can be controlled directly without extra aids, e.g. bodily movements, voice, speech, gestures, touch, song, etc. Possibly production of molecules related to smell and taste could also be included. An argument against including smell and taste is that even though they are directly causally related to man, they are usually not controllable. Concerning the other primary means of expression, they include both spontaneous indexical and iconic means as well as symbolic means dependent on social conventions (speech, gestural language and certain types of song).


2) Secondary: Secondary means of expression simply consist of the instruments which are used to augment and support the primary means of expression. Secondary means are used, for example, to overcome spatial distance and to preserve information over time, e.g. using pen, chisel, typewriter, computer, megaphone, microphone with a loudspeaker, semaphore, radio, TV, audio and videotapes, telephone, telegraph, fax or e-mail. As we can see some secondary means directly reproduce primary means, e.g. radio, megaphones, audio tapes while others require more advanced recoding of primary means, e.g. writing. In some cases, this recoding requires several steps, e.g. telegraph or e-mail.


3) Tertiary: When we come to tertiary means it might be objected that the label "means of expression" is not entirely adequate. Tertiary means are simply all human artifacts (no negative evaluation intended) that are not secondary means of expression, e.g. tables, chairs, houses, roads, household appliances, cars, etc. All such artifacts express technical, functional and aesthetic ideas and intuitions. Perhaps the artifacts which are easiest to regard as means of expression are those which mainly have an aesthetic purpose like paintings and sculptures, etc. Second to these, there are artifacts, the construction and shaping of which has been under relatively direct causal control by the person who has made them. In most traditional cultures involving "handicraft", such control was usually individually exercised by both masters and apprentices. The artifacts in industrial societies, however, have less and less of such individual control and are instead often products of teamwork and industrial mass production. If they are to be seen as means of expression they must perhaps be seen as an expression of a collective rather than an individual mentality. In fact, this was perhaps also true of older traditions and artifacts where the creation of a single individual often was constrained by tradition and for this reason difficult to discover.


b. Research on Multimodality


Some researches about the use of multimodal semiotic resources in classrooms generally have been conducted (Kress et al., 2001; Hoban and Nielsen, 2012; Jaipal, 2010; Marquez et al., 2005; and Jewitt, 2008). These studies focus on how certain concepts are represented and communicated multimodality. For example, Kress and colleagues (Kress, Jewitt, Ogborn, & Tsatsarelis, 2001) examined how nonlinguistic modes, such as gestures, can fulfill ideational, interpersonal, and textual meta-functions in classrooms. Hoban and Nielsen (2012) explored pre-service teachers’ perceptions of using a slowmation technique to represent the science concept. They believed that slowmation provides potential of preservice teachers seek information, represent it using different modes and then use their own technology to combine them as a multimodal representation. In addition to Jaipal (2010) finding that teaching is a complex process, involving the use of multiple modalities. The multimodal semiotic analysis highlighted how different modalities scaffold each other to enhance meaning-making possibilities, and most importantly, it highlighted important features of semiotic modalities that should be taken into account by teachers during the meaning-making process. Marquez, Izquierdo, and Espinet (2005) study draws a more accurate picture of the role, speech, gesture, and visual language (through the use of diagrams and arrows) play in modeling the water cycle in secondary science classrooms. Based on this idea, the process of teaching and learning process is based on the semiotic resources because in the end it is difficult to create meaning in a single mode. Additionally Jewitt (2008) claimed that the most fundamental aspech which is called knowledge is represented as well as the mode and media chosen.


Following the trend in multimodality applied in clasroom, a small number of studies on multimodal teaching, learning, and assessment for ELLs has also been conducted in different content areas (Ajayi, 2012; Early & Marshall, 2008; and Pandya, 2012;). Ajayi (2009) studied on semiotics to argue that multimodal textbooks encode specific knowledge that offers teachers and learners new possibilites for design teaching and learning of English language. He claimed that ESL teachers were faced with problems on teaching English language learners how complex multimodal resources combine and integrate to design meaning in the textbooks they teach. In the same context but another researcher, Pandya (2012) tackles the complicated issues surrounding the assessment of English learners’ literacy skill development in the multimodal classroom. She contends to open Pandora’s box in order to prove links between multimodality and literacy skill development. Early and Marshall (2008) study explores how using a multimodal approach to integrating language and content teaching, high school students with limited English proficiency can be supported to engage in rich, complex interpretations of literary works in English and to realize their interpretations linguistically in written academic discourse. They suggest that a multimodal approach, in combination with cooperative group work and L1 use, has considerable potential in promoting ELL students’ academic success.


More recently, some studies began to link the multimodal representations into learning effectiveness (Zang, 2016 and Howell et al., 2015). For example, Zang (2016) studied about multimodal science discourse in sheltered classroom involving English Language Learners only, this ethnographic approach examined how the learning is constructed in science lecturers through multiple semiotic resources. Obviously Zang’s research is the closest one with the writers’ study. However the research tend to focus on how the incorporation of multiple modes enable teachers and students to represent the science content where the writer study try to explore broader aspect include the students’ language attitudes and teacher instructional aspect if we look at the multimodal perspective in a searching of relevant meaning. Howell, Reinking, and Kaminski (2015) propose the perspective of multiliteracies frames writing instruction as the creative construction of meaning across various modalities, and they illustrate how that view might be instantiated instructionally by engaging students in the creative design of multimodal arguments.


It should be noted that multimodal discourse analysis is a developing field and that while some excellent qualitative research has been performed in this area (Kress et al., 2001; Jewitt, 2006; Jaipal, 2010; Hoban and Nielsen, 2012; Ajayi, 2012; Zang, 2016). This study extends and adapts previous approaches to conduct a large scale qualitative analysis of teaching and learning in an EFL environment in relation with students attitude and teacher instructional.


2. Classroom Discourse (Multimodality)


In this section, the writer only focus on variety of modes in range of educational contex. The are a number of semiotic modes available to practice the students and teacher. Educational context is the most suitable place and at the same time provoke many elements to create meaning in order to fulfill our learning needs. Furthermore English as a special subject in that students and teachers have to understand and be able to switch between a number of different representations of the same phenomenon. The students and teacher may immerse with a variety of modes including aural (e.g., music) visual (e.g., pictures, art), aural/visual (e.g., television, video games), linguistic (e.g., storytelling), gestural (e.g., body control, emotion), and spatial (e.g., geographical, architectural) modes (L, Linebarger, & Norton-Meier, 2016). They subsequently use these modes to make sense of their worlds. For instance, very young children will frequently draw pictures that reflect their mental representations about various objects, events, or persons


However, as Hammond (2011) point out in their introduction to Discourse and Education (volume 3 of Encyclopedia of Language and Education), in current literature, classroom discourse refers both to ‘talk-in interaction’ in classrooms, and to the critical post structural view of discourse as ‘ways of understanding and constituting the social world’. The writer emphasis is primarily on any meaning aspect of language both students and teacher influenced by semiotic resources in process.


Below there will be explanations about the students language attitudes and language of instruction.


a. Students’ language attitudes


One of the issues that have attracted the attention of scholars regarding language learning is the issue of students’ language attitude. Attitude is considered as an essential factor influencing the students language performance. Students’ language attitude is one of the main factors that determine their success in language learning. There was a strong correlation between the students’ attitudes toward learning language and their performance in their linguistic skill. Attitude has cognitive, affective and conative components; it involves beliefs, emotional reactions and behavioral tendencies related to the object of the attitudes.


Attitudes is strictly related to cognitive dimension, According to Ecless and Wigfield (2002) students’ attitudes influence their willingness to en­gage in tasks from the teacher.


Some researchers (Eshginejad, 2016; Momani, 2009; and Mitchell and Myles in Yang Yu, 2010) have conducted on the role of students’ attitudes in language learning and indicated that they have positive attitudes toward learning English (Momani, 2009). However, qualitatively we need to point our view into more broader look, it means rather than looking the one-sided perspective, the writer tends to look at both side between positive and negative perspective of the students’ language attitude. As Mitchell and Myles in the dissertation of Yang Yu (2010) that attitudes towards the target language, its speakers and the learning context may all play some part in explaining their success or failure, based on this idea, we can claim that there is positve attitudes and negative attitudes playing essential role and better teaching strategies, classroom management and good social environment can help reduce negative attitudes.


There are many reasons why this study concerns more about students’ language attitude rather than other mainstream aspects. First, it takes an essential part of the succesfull in the language learning process, second the attitude is not as simple as it exists as intellectual capacity, such as the students willingness of selecting their best prepared material or reading matter to support learning but more into their action such as speaking in certain language. It sounds logical when they can show their spoken performance in the end of the class since they deal with language learning. However another research found that language learning should be approached primarily as a social and psychological phenomenon rather than as a purely academic one (Eshghinejad, 2016). Furthermore given from another perspective, language learning should balance those components.


The studies on attitudes of learners in language research have explored a number of settings due to the complex nature of attitude and the breadth of its impact on various fields of language learning. In line with this, the methodology used in studying language attitudes is varying. We may found the majority of research data on people’s attitudes gathered using questionnaire like Likert-scale but other methods may be useful in order to give a broader perspective of students’ attitude.


Having regard to the multimodality, attitudes may also in form of discourse, as it express passions and hates, attractions and repulsions, likes and dislikes and represent one’s idea (Gilbert, Fiske, & Lindzey, 1998), there will be something to make them all real for instance it is observable since vision is very powerful that amounts of information can be presented visually at any time. Both gesture and language are the easiest way to describe attitudes (behavioural intentional attitudes). However attitude in this context is considered as the students’ language attitude toward the triger. Many multiple modes may be appear in the process of whether gaining gain nuanced understanding of subject-matter, powerfully express what they learned, and discover a psychological refuge.


The challenges of ELLs in clasroom discourse appears on the surface where it involves communication process., relating to the students’ language attitude, they often create unrecognizable kind of modes. The teacher spend a lot of time looking up or guessing meanings of students which might result in regressive eye movement or gaze, body language and gesture and eventually creating spoken language. However the meanings made are not always able to be understood. Furthermore by the works of multimodality we are able to see how meaning is constructed through this multimodality


b. Language of Instruction


Due to widespread use of English as medium of instruction and object of learning. Some contries decide to use English as their primary language of instruction. Many researcher also become interested to investigate this phenomena since naturally some of them do not live with English as their national language. In addition this aspect, Indonesia as on of them, there is no clear mandate concerning the language to be used in the classroom.


In Indonesia, the sole medium of instruction is Indonesian, except in the first three grades of elementary school in areas where the learners do not know enough Indonesian for classroom interaction. In the usual situation, the local vernacular can be used as a transitional medium of instruction to ease the learners into the use of Indonesian as a medium of instruction and classroom interaction. The curriculum also has changed from time to time, many books especially in English are all written in English but the main spoken laguages are still the national language or Bahasa Indonesia in many secondary downward. However, this circumstances may change when many unversities tend to use English as their language of instruction in their courses, but still this is just an individual willing.


Given the possibilites of multimodal applied in pedagogy area, many scholars (Kajee, 2011; ) have evaluated language of instruction from various aspect. The most important key aspect of the studies are as folows;


Kajee (2011) explores the multimodal engagement of English as an additional-language (EAL) students in a classroom in Johannesburg. Within a social semiotic framework, and using constructions of design and identity to understand the students’ multimodal engagement, the paper argues that multimodal representations offer EAL students from under-resourced contexts opportunities for creativity and agency to redesign meaning. It demonstrates how they use the opportunities provided to reconstruct their identities as black South Africans and to communicate a sense of their own social world. The analysis focuses on two texts produced by the students, a digital narrative text and a poetry performance to illustrate their multimodal engagement with literacy. The paper concludes with an examination of the broader implications for teaching and learning EAL.


Having regard to the teachers’ role and multimodality, while conveying the their instructions, the teacher are usually supported by other modes, it can be by in form of disambodied mode for example, batons, or may be in form of embodied modes which consisted of eyebrow raising, high intensity or pitch of a tonic vowel. Another specific modes while teacher neeed to list something (e.g. first, second third and so fort) they may perform gestural modes like counting on finger, or marking all the items in the list with the same intonational contour; topic shift may be expressed through posture shift. Furthermore, the way of teachers convey their language instructional not only inclined to be influenced by one single mode (spoken discourse) but many semiotic resources in process, including gestures, emotional intonation, facial expression, gaze and posture.


A teacher in classroom interaction conveys all of these meanings; but some are conveyed more frequently, because of the teacher’s particular role. Starting from the taxonomy above, then, we can predict the specific communicative profile of a teacher’s communication. Of course these predictions stem from our stereotype of the teacher’s role, but they can be tested on real data.


A great part of the teacher’s classroom communication informs about the contents of different disciplines that include both concrete and abstract information. In some cases, concrete information like the shape of an object or a space, or a sequence of actions is better conveyed by iconic signals, like pictures, paintings, pantomime or iconic gestures. But gestures have proved to be useful also in the explanation of abstract (for example, mathematical) concepts [8].


3.2 Information on the Speaker’s Mind. This is the realm in which teacher’s multimodal communication is most informative.


Beliefs. Starting from information on the Speaker’s beliefs, namely the degree of certainty of the beliefs she mentions (a.1.), we predict a teacher will not convey uncertainty or doubt so often, given the image of a self-confident person she must generally project in front of her pupils. So, her most frequent expression will be the small frown showing that she is serious in what she says, and that she believes it strongly. As to the metacognitive information about the source of her current knowledge (a.2.), during a lecture the teacher will rarely gaze side-downward, or raise eyes up, because she is usually supposed to remember the things she reports very well, without needing to retrieve them from long-term memory, or to reason long about them.


Goals. The teacher’s communication (as opposed to the layperson’s) is supposedly particularly rich in providing information about her sentence, discourse and conversational goals. As shown by studies on teachers’ behaviour [1], the teacher’s performatives, i.e. the specific communicative intentions of her sentences, are a great number: question, peremptory order, advice, approval, praise, blame, reproach, question with an indirect meaning of command, praise with an ironic meaning of blame; but they are rarely conveyed by the classical performative verbs (I order, I advice, I propose... [18], [19]); they are generally expressed by intonation, gaze or facial expression. Instead of saying “I order you to turn off you cellular”, the teacher will express the propositional content of the speech act (“Turn off your cellular”) while conveying its performative by a severe directive intonation, and/or by a serious ace, no smile, head up, gaze staring at he pupil. Performative intonation and performative facial expression [20] are sophisticated devices of human communication, devoted to convey even the most subtle nuances that distinguish performatives from one another. This is why the teacher’s voice and face behavior are important in educational interaction. One more frequent and important information the teacher conveys, but mostly not by verbal language, is about the relative importance of the different parts of a sentence of discourse: the topic-comment distinction. More than in everyday communication, the teacher needs to distinguish, within her sentence or discourse, the beliefs that pupils have to retrieve from their long-term memory (topic) from the new beliefs to connect with them that are the object of the teacher’s present communication (comment). Often, to explain new concepts that to be understood require reference to previous contents, the teacher has to recall a lecture or an activity performed even months before. This distinction between what is to be retrieved from memory and what is coming as new is generally expressed by facial and intonational devices [10].


Again, gesture and intonation are of help when the teacher makes explicit the rhetorical relationships among different parts of the discourse she is delivering. An aid to understand and memorise a discourse is to know the Author’s outline. This is why a teacher often says: “I’ll now speak of X… now I come to topic Y…”. But this can also be done in nonverbal ways: a posture shift, for instance, signals we are moving to another topic or starting a digression [21]. Another way to stress transition to another sub-topic is counting paragraphs, not only verbally (“first… second…. third…”) but also gesturally, by counting on fingers. Intonation has an important role too: a recurrent intonational contour signals we are listing different items of the same class, while we can mark a parenthetic clause through lower pitch and intensity [22]. The signals to regulate turn-taking and to provide back-channel are particularly important in classroom interaction, both for teacher and pupils; and the teacher must be particularly aware of these signals, whether delivered from herself or the pupils. A trivial example is when a pupil raises a hand to ask for a speaking turn. But while this holds in a classroom with a quite asymmetrical structure and rigid interactional norms, it could not hold in a democratic group or while working in a small team. In this case, a teacher that wants all members to talk must be aware of more subtle ways of asking for a speaking turn: leaning forward, opening mouth as in starting to speak, opening eyes wider. Finally, a back-channel signal is any communicative verbal or nonverbal act performed by an Interlocutor to provide a feed-back to the present Speaker about whether the Interlocutor is a. understanding, b. believing, c. approving, and d. finding interesting what the Speaker is saying. I can say “I see” or simply nod to tell you I understand what you are saying; if I don’t understand I’ll say “I can’t follow you” or frown; if I understand but I don’t believe it, I can say “I don’t believe it”, shake my head or show a facial expression of doubt or perplexity; I can nod also for approving, and shake head, shake index finger, or frown for disapproving; if what you say is very interesting I’ll say “You don’t say!”, or “Oh!” emphatically, or raise eyebrows to show surprise; but if I am not very much concerned or definitely bored, I can cyclically repeat “oh”, with a very flat intonation, or even yawn. Now, some back-channel signals may be emotionally loaded, since they imply an evaluation and then may touch or hurt the Speaker’s image or self-image: letting the speaker know that I don’t believe what she says, or that her talk is boring, may be offensive. So we can predict 1. what back-channel signals are more frequently provided by teachers and pupils, respectively, and 2. what back-channel signals are more relevant for, respectively, teachers’ and pupils’ behaviour. A very young pupil will not perform many back-channel signals of incredulity, not only because it is implausible for him to have a knowledge base sufficiently larger than the teacher’s enabling him to know things contrasting with what she says; but also because, even if the pupil really does not believe the teacher, he might be afraid to offend her by showing it. Again, a pupil will be particularly sensitive to back-channel signals of approval and disapproval. Conversely, if a teacher thinks motivation is an important basis for learning, she will pay attention to signals of interest or boredom.


Emotions. As to information about emotions, a teacher may feel various kinds of emotions during class work: joy, stress, anxiety, enthusiasm; tenderness, compassion, love, hatred, worry, anger, interest, curiosity, boredom. Of course, the very fact that a teacher expresses her emotions may be subject to sanction; so some teachers may claim they do not express their emotions to pupils, but yet their emotions can leak out from nonverbal behavior: anxiety or anger may be not expressed by a specific signal, but by some aspects of how one performs verbal or nonverbal signals: some subparameters of gestural or bodily behaviour like rhythm or muscular tension may vary producing a particular muscular tension in making gestures, a higher pitch of voice in speaking, a higher speed in moving around in the classroom.

The first thing we need to consider as teachers and researchers is how to rethink our current focus on transmission. In addition, we need to review how we assess achievement and progress if we are to harness what our students bring to the classroom in the form of their own meanings, through the use of image, gesture, dress, technology and so on. As teachers we do not seem to have a sufficiently strong semiotic sense, a capacity which is often inadequately promoted teacher training.


Multimodality, through a paradigm of social semiotics, has the potential to transform the teaching and learning by providing students with new opportunities for agency and voice. The multimodal environment facilitates the emergence of shared moments of learner participation, negotiation and renegotiation of meaning within the classroom as a community of practice.









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Stylistics in the classroom (Summary of Gillian Lazar book)

 Stylistics or stilistika in Bahasa concerned with aesthetic aspect of a language and also social background. In the clasroom, stylistic analysis has two main objectives: to enable students to make meaningful interpretations of the text itself; and to expand students' knowledge and awareness of the language in general. Thus, although the aim of using stylistics is to help students to read and study literature more competently, it also provides them with excellent language practice.

In order to drill our skill about this stylistics, I want all of us to recall the literary devices that we already learnt in the course previously, there is methaphor (A metaphor refers to a meaning or identity ascribed to one subject by way of another), simile (referring to the practice of drawing parallels or comparisons between two unrelated and dissimilar things, people, beings, places and concepts), assonance (repetision of vowels/ a long song), aliteration (repetion of consonants e.g : The Wicked Witch of the West went her own way. (The ‘W’ sound is highlighted and repeated throughout the sentence.), repetition of word or phrase, anagram for example an anagram for "debit card" is "bad credit". both phrases use the same letters. By mixing the letters a bit of humor is created. Analogy, a relationship based on similarities between two concepts or ideas. Puns (Definition: Puns are a very popular literary device wherein a word is used in a manner to suggest two or more possible meanings. This is generally done to the effect of creating humor or irony or wryness) e.g Santa’s helpers are known as subordinate Clauses.

So after we recognized the literary devices, there are activities both for the students and teacher as well.

A. Teacher

As we already know that we are usually dealing with text and we may analyze the literary text for any unusual or noticeable linguistic features. But before that, there is one possible procedure which involves two main steps:

1. Note down any linguistic features which are particularly noticeable. It is noticeable because they deviate slightly from what might be considered more grammatically or lexically usual.

2. Develop a series of questions which alert students to these features, and encourage students to reach an interpretation or appreciation of the text bearing these features in mind.

Example of literary text to analyze; (opening paragraph of V.S Naipaul’s novel “a House for Mr Biswas”)

B. Students

Here are some questions for students based on the text above that are probably relevant for secondary level;

Go through the questions yourself and note your answers.

1. Write down all the examples you can find in the text of exact numbers, figures or other precise details describing Mr Biswas and his situation. What effect do you think is created by using all these details?

2. In the opening lines of the text we are told that Mr Biswas was sacked. The author could also have said:' Mr Biswas was dismissed.' 'Mr Biswas lost his job.'

How would the use of these phrases in the passage have changed its meaning?

3. In what situation is it common to use the phrase 'I/We have no choice'? Do you think the newspaper had no choice in sacking Mr Biswas? What is the effect of using the phrase here?

4. In the second paragraph two phrases are repeated. Which ones are they? What do you think is the effect of repeating them?

5. In the second paragraph we have the phrase ' . . . Mr Biswas had been owing for four years . . . ' What tense is used here? It is probably more grammatically correct to use the phrase 'he had owed' (past perfect) since verbs of possession such as owe, belong, etc. are not usually used in the continuous form. What is the effect of using this tense here?

6. What feelings do you have for Mr Biswas after reading these two paragraphs? Why do you think this is so?

Stylistic analysis can also provide a way of comparing different types of texts (whether literary or non-literary) in order to ascertain how they fulfill different social functions. For example, students may be asked to compare the description of a character in a novel with the information about someone given in a letter of reference or on a medical form (Widdowson, 1975, Chapter 6). The students will then be able to examine how these texts differ and the reason for this difference. The teaching of literature can thus be integrated more fully into the classroom, since literary texts can be studied alongside other kinds of texts.

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List of Terms in Morphosyntax

(based on book "Trends in Linguistics: Aspects of the Theory of Morphology by Igor Mel’ čuk)

1. Term : META-linguistic /metǝliŋꞌgwistik /adj/ (p.1)

Definition : Adjective form of metalanguage/metǝ,læŋwidʒ /n/. A language which is used to talk about another language, the object language. A metalanguage may be either a natural language or a formal language; the same is true of an object language. It is very common in linguistics to use a natural language, such as English as a metalanguage to talk about the same natural language as the object language; when this is done. It is essential to distinguish the two clearly to avoid confusion (Trask, 2013).

Usage : This is conventionally done by typographical means, such as by citing object language forms in italics or in inverted commas: compare Mean are beasts with ‘Men’ is an irregular plural.

2. Term : Semantemes /n/(p.7)

Definition : An indivisible unit of meaning (base: semantic), another similar terms like grammeme (p.8 and p.23) in linguistics is a unit of grammar, just as a lexeme (p.21 and 52) is a lexical unit and a morpheme is a morphological unit

Related items : An emic unit is a type of abstract object analyzed in linguistics and related fields. Kinds of emic units are generally denoted by terms with the suffix -eme, such as phoneme, grapheme, grammemes and Lexeme. An emic unit is defined by Nöth (1995) as "an invariant form obtained from the reduction of a class of variant forms to a limited number of abstract units". The variant forms are called etic units (from phonetic). This means that a given emic unit is considered to be a single underlying object that may have a number of different observable surface representations.

The various etic units that represent a given emic unit of a certain kind are denoted by a corresponding term with the prefix allo-, such as allophone, allograph, allomorph (corresponding respectively to phoneme, grapheme, morpheme). The relation between an emic unit and the corresponding etic forms is sometimes called the allo/eme relationship.



3. Term : Semantic Actants (p.7 and 84)

Definition : The word of actant is often referred to as argument and term (čuk, 2004). The term actant was first introduced in Tesnière (1959) to denote the major syntactic roles of nominals that directly depend on the Main Verb syntactically: Subject, Direct Object and Indirect Object (the semantic dimension being ignored). Therefore semantic actants is the same as semantic argument.

Another Items :as cited in Glottopedia, the is also term called Syntactic actants (Glottopedia) are as a dependent syntactic argument, i.e. a noun phrase (or other referential constituent) that is required by a valency of a predicate. There is some difference between semantic actants and syntactic actants. E.g.: (1) some syntactic actants, like "dummy subjects" (like it in Engl. It rains.), correspond to no semantic actant. (2) some semantic actants, like "zero" object ('on what?') in Engl. It depends., correspond to no syntactic actant

4. Term : Genitive /adj or n/(p.42 and 45)

Definition :The term consists of gen and ive (a suffix of adjectives), in linguistics it means possessor of another noun. Typically expresses a possessive relationship.

Example : John's book was on the table. And, the pages of the book turned yellow.

Related terms :Genitive is one of the grammatical case. Case means distinctive, overtly marked form which can be assumed by an NP to indicate that that NP bears some identifiable grammatical or semantic relation to the rest of the sentence. In English, overt case marking is confined to a few pronouns (I,me;they,them) , but some other languages such as German, Russian,Latin, Basque and Finnish exhibit elaborate case systems typically involving about three to six distinct forms, but sometimes a dozen or more. Among the most frequently distinguished cases (p.139) are the nominative (subject of a finite verb), accusative (direct object of a transitive verb), absolutive, ergative, dative (p.130) (indirect object of a verb), instrumental (an object used in performing an action), comitative, locative (location). aIlative (denotes movement), ablative (express motion) and genitive.

5. Term : Syntagmatic /sintaægꞌmætik /adj/(p.24)

Definition : Adjective form of syntagm /sintaægm/adj/, an occasional synonym for construction. It is also considered as an elementary constituent segment within a text. Such a segment can be a phoneme, word, grammatical phrase, sentence or an event within a larger narrative structure, depending on the level of analysis. Syntagmatic analysis involves the study of relationships (rules of combination) among syntagmas.

Note :In many European languages. This word is used as the exact equivalent of the English word Phrase.



6. Term : Phraseological /freɪziːjəꞌlɑdʒɪkəl /adj/(p.41)

Definition : Refers to the word Phraseology, it is the study of set or fixed expressions, such as idioms, phrasal verbs, and other types of multi-word lexical units (often collectively referred to as phrasemes), in which the component parts of the expression take on a meaning more specific than or otherwise not predictable from the sum of their meanings when used independently

Example :Dutch auction’ is composed of the words Dutch ‘of or pertaining to the Netherlands’ and auction ‘a public sale in which goods are sold to the highest bidder’, but its meaning is not ‘a sale in the Netherlands where goods are sold to the highest bidder’. Instead, the phrase has a conventionalized meaning referring to any auction where, instead of rising, the prices fall.

7. Term : Congruence/koŋꞌgruǝnts /n/ (p.89)

Definition : A term used in linguistics to refer to a correspondence between
the decisions made at one level of analysis (phonology, grammar or semantics) and those made at another. The sentence is the unit where there is maximum congruence of levels, in that criteria of identification at each level tend to coincide: certain classes of exception aside, a sentence is a grammatically, semantically and phonologically autonomous unit. The notion of word, by contrast, displays less congruence (‘is less congruent’): phonological (andorthographic), morphological, syntactic and semantic criteria often conflict in word identification and classification (Crystal, 2008 ).

8. Term : Apophony /n/(p.140)

Definition : In linguistics, apophony (also known as ablaut, (vowel) gradation, (vowel) mutation, alternation, internal modification, stem modification, stem alternation, replacive morphology, stem mutation, internal inflection etc.) is the alternation of sounds within a word that indicates grammatical information (often inflectional)..

Example : Apophony is exemplified in English as the internal vowel alternations that produce such related words as (1) sing, sang, sung, song (2) rise, raise (3) lie, lay (4) bind, bound (5) food, feed (6) blood, bleed (7) brood, breed (8) doom, deem (9) goose, geese (10) tooth, teeth (11) foot, feet

9. Terms : Parasitic/perǝꞌsitik/adj/(p.144)

Definition : [Complete terms: Parasitic Gap] an empty position which does not result directly from a movement transformation but which is licensed secondarily by another transformation that does not itself affect the parasitic gap.

Example : The following example involves a parasitic gap, indicated by p, and an ordinary gap, indicated by e: Which film did he criticize e without seeing p? The parasitic gap is possible only because the ordinary gap is present; hence, the following is ungrammatical: He criticized Henry V without seeing p



10. Term : Oblique /ǝꞌblɪ:k /adj/(p.144)

Definition : In languages which express grammatical relationships by means of inflections, this term refers to the form taken by a noun phrase (often a single noun or pronoun) when it refers collectively to all the case forms of a word except that of the unmarked case, or nominative (Crystal, 2008 ).



11. Term : Empty Morphs /n/(p.145)

Definition : a morph which cannot be assigned [allocated] to any morpheme.

Example : a well-discussed example in English is the word children, where a possible analysis is into root child and plural suffix -en (cf. oxen); the residual /r/ left by this analysis is then seen as an empty morph without which the word would not be exhaustively analyzed at the morphemic level (Crystal, 2008 ).



12. Term : Hypostasis /haiꞌpɑstǝsǝs /n/(p.166)

Description : (from the Greek word ὑπόστασις meaning foundation, base or that which stands behind), is a relationship between a name and a known quantity, as a cultural personification (i.e. objectification with personality) of an entity or quality. It often connotes the personification of typically elemental powers, such as wind and fire, or human life, fertility, and death. In descriptive linguistics, the term was first introduced by Leonard Bloomfield to account for uses of systemantic words as autosemantic in sentences such as I'm tired of your ifs and buts. In this sense, the usage meaning of the word is referred to as a whole.



13. Terms : Slot (p.184)

Definition : a term used in grammatical analysis to refer to a place in a construction into which a class of items can be inserted to a place in a construction into which a class of items can be inserted

Example : In the sentence; The children – home, the ‘slot’ marked by the dash can be ‘filled’by came, are, went, etc. – a subclass of verbs. Approaches characterized by this emphasis are sometimes referred to as slot-and-filler models. The analysis of sentence structure in terms of slots is a major feature of tagmemic grammar, where the notion is used to identify the filler items (e.g. ‘subject slot’,‘object slot’) (Crystal, 2008 ).



14. Terms : Monovalent, Bivalent, Trivalent (p.224) and Multi-valent (p.218)

Definition : Family of Valency /n/. A term introduced by the French linguist Lucien Tesnière (1893–1954), which has been particularly influential in the development of models of dependency grammar in Europe and Russia. The term is derived from chemistry, and is used in linguistics to refer to the number and type of bonds which syntactic elements may form with each other. A valency grammar presents a model of a sentence containing a fundamental element (typically, the verb) and a number of dependent elements (variously referred to as arguments, expressions, complements or valents) whose number and type is determined by the valency attributed to the verb.

Example : The valency of vanish includes only the subject element (it has a valency of 1, monovalent, or monadic), whereas that of scrutinize includes both subject and direct object (a valency of 2, bivalent, or dyadic). Verbs which take more than two complements are polyvalent, or polyadic. A verb which takes no complements at all (such as rain) is said to have zerovalency (be a valent). Valency deals not only with the number of valents with which a verb is combined to produce a well-formed sentence nucleus, but also with the classification of sets of valents which may be combined with different verbs. For example, give and put usually have a valency of 3 (trivalent), but the valents governed by the former (subject, direct object and indirect object) are different from those governed by the latter subject, direct object, and locative adverbial). Verbs which differ in this way are said to be associated with different valency sets. The notion is similar to that used in case grammar, where cases are sometimes referred to as valency roles (Crystal, 2008 ).



15. Term : Antipassive /æntɪꞌpæsiv /n or adj/ (p.235)

Description : In grammar, a term used primarily to characterize a type of voice in ergative languages (e.g. Dyirbal) which is the functional equivalent of the passive in non-ergative languages. In these languages, the topic of a clause is usually the patient, not (as in English) the actor, and the antipassive construction handles cases where the actor is chosen as topic. Antipassive forms are formally more complex than the corresponding ergative forms, with the verb marked by a derivational suffix. The use of an anti passive does not exclude the possibility that passive or passive-like constructions may also occur in the same language (as in Maasai). The term is also sometimes used with reference to non-ergative languages, such as English, for certain types of apparently intransitive construction for example, verbs such as cook or paint when used without their object (Crystal, 2008 ).

16. Term : Enclitic /n/(p.241)

Definition : From the word Clitic/n/. A term used in grammar to refer to a form which resembles a word, but which cannot stand on its own as a normal utterance, being phonologically dependent upon a neighbouring word (its host) in a construction.(The term ‘clitic’ comes from the Greek word for ‘leaning’.) Such clitic words (‘clitics’) can be classified into proclitics (i.e. they depend upon a following word, as in the case of the articles) and enclitics (i.e. they depend upon a preceding word, as in the attachment (cliticization)of some pronouns to the end of a verb form in Italian or Spanish). The processes are also referred to as proclisis and enclisis respectively (Crystal, 2008 ).

Example : Examples of cliticized forms are the contracted forms of be, such as I’m and he’s. The articles of English, French, etc., are sometimes referred to as clitics: a form like the cannot stand on its own in normal utterance, but it would be called a word none the less by native-speakers.



17. Term : Inversion /ɪnꞌvɜ:ʒn /n/ (p.244)

Definition : a term used in grammatical analysis to refer to the process or result of syntactic change in which a specific sequence of constituents is seen as the reverse of another.

Examples : In English, one of the main ways of forming questions is by inverting the order of subject and auxiliary, e.g. Is he going (Crystal, 2008 ).

Another example, in English the auxiliary comes after the subject noun in declarative sentences (e.g. He will come by at 8 o’clock) but before the subject in questions (Will he come by at 8?). This specific operation is called subject–verb inversion.(Richards, Schmidt, Kendricks, & Kim, 2002)



18. Terms : Confixation (p.299) Interfixation (p.299) Infixation, Circumfixation and Transfixation (p.300)

Definition : The term affixation can be broken down into confixation (when affixes do not interrupt roots and are not interrupted themselves, as in Suffixation, Prefixation, and Interfixation, Infixation (when affixes that interrupt roots but are not interrupted themselves), Circumfixation (when affixes do not interrupt roots but are interrupted themselves) and Transfixation (when affixes interrupt roots and are interrupted by elements of roots themselves). Unlike affixation, compounding involves the binding of two lexeme stems, while conversion takes place when a word assumes the characteristics of a different word-class without any change of form.



19. Term : Augmentative /ↄ:gꞌment /n/(p.357)

Definition : (Augm) a term used in morphology to refer to an affix with the general meaning of ‘large’, used literally or metaphorically (often implying awkwardness or ugliness).

Example :Examples of augmentatives include -one in Italian and -ón in Spanish (e.g. sillón‘arm chair’, cf. silla‘chair’).



20. Term : Monosyllabic /mɒnǝsiꞌlæbik /adj/ (p.484)

Definition : Monosyllabic in which words predominantly consist of a single syllable.

Description : The languages of China and Southeast Asia are sometimes referred to as monosyllabic. The languages of the region tend to be highly isolating and can be phonetically complex (the phonetic rules of Thai language permits 23 638 possible syllables, compared to, for example, Hawaiian language's 162). The difficulty of defining the term "word," such as the difficulty of telling apart collocations, set phrases and compound words in languages such as Chinese or English (is "dog house/doghouse" a single word or a two-word phrase?), the subjective question of what constitutes "most" words to make a language monosyllabic (there are no living languages that are strictly monosyllabic) and other such considerations render the topic non-scientific and unencyclopedic (Hannas, 1997).



21. Term :Ellipsis /ɪꞌlipsis /n/ (p.488)

Definition :A term used in grammatical analysis to refer to a sentence where, for reasons of economy, emphasis or style, a part of the structure has been omitted, which is recoverable from a scrutiny of the context. Traditional grammars talk here of an element being ‘understood’, but linguistic analyzes tend to constrain the notion more, emphasizing the need for the elided (or ellipted) parts of the sentence to be unambiguously specifiable. (Trask, 2013)

Example : Take a look in this sequence;

A: Where are you going?

B: To town

The ‘full’ form of B’s sentence is predictable from A’s sentence (‘I am going to town’). But in such sentences as Thanks, Yes, etc., it is generally unclear what the full form of such sentences might be (e.g. ‘Thanks are due to you’? ‘I give you thanks’?), and in such circumstances the term ‘ellipsis’ would probably not be used. Elliptical constructions are an essential feature of everyday conversation, but the rules governing their occurrence have received relatively little study. They are also sometimes referred to as reduced, contracted, deleted, or ‘abbreviated’ constructions.



22. Term :Truncation/trʌŋkeɪʃǝn /n/ (p.493)

Definition :A term sometimes used in phonology to refer to a process of word shortening which is phonologically predictable. Certain types of hypocoristic (pet-name), for example, have been shown to be truncated in a regular way. The process has attracted particular attention in prosodic morphology, where it is used to illustrate such processes as template-mapping and prosodic circumscription.



23. Term :Haplology /hæpꞌlɒdʒi /n/ (p.497)

Definition :The morphological process in which one of two consecutive morphs of identical or similar form is dropped.In phonology, it is largely used in both synchronic and diachronic contexts, to refer to the omission of some of the sounds occurring in a sequence of similar articulations, as when cyclists is pronounced /ꞌsaikli:/, library /ꞌlaɪbrɪ. Some psycholinguists also use the term to refer to a tongue-slip where an omission of this kind has taken place, e.g. running jump becoming rump



Example : The Basque word for 'cider', a compound of sagar' apple' and ardo 'wine', ought, by the usual rules of word formation, to have the form *sagar-ardo, but the actual form is sagardo, in which one of the -ar- sequences has been dropped.

REFERENCES

Crystal, D. (Ed.) (2008 ) A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (6 ed.). UK: Blackwell Publishing.

čuk, I. M. (2004). Actants in Semantics. Linguistics, 42(1).

Glottopedia. Retrieved 2, 2017, from http://www.glottopedia.org/index.php/Actant

Hannas, W. C. (1997). Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press.

Richards, J. C., Schmidt, R., Kendricks, H., & Kim, Y. (Eds.). (2002) (3 ed.). London: Pearson Education.

Trask, R. L. (Ed.) (2013) A dictionary of Grammatical Terms in Linguistics. London, England: Taylor & Francis.

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Contoh Penelitian Psikologi Pendidikan (Translated Journal)

“KESEJAHTERAAN PSIKOLOGIS GURU-GURU PEMULA SELAMA TIGA TAHUN MENGAJAR: Efikasi Diri, Penyebab Stress, Ketegangan dan Ketidakpuasan Kerja”

Hasil Translasi dari Jurnal Michelle Helms-Lorenz dan Ridwan Maulana (2015)




A. Latar Belakang

Mengajar merupakan tugas yang kompleks seiring dengan tuntutan lingkungan. Kompleksitas dalam tugas mengajar sering menimbulkan masalah bagi beberapa guru. Sejumlah pakar menunjukkan bahwa pekerjaan seperti mengajar sangat rentan akan tekanan psikologis dan kelelahan daripada pekerjaan lainnya (Johnson et al, 2005;. Kyriacou, 001). Dengan hilangnya harapan akan kesejahteraan membuat banyak guru meninggalkan profesi mereka sehingga menimbulkan keprihatinan terutama bagi negara dengan jumlah tenaga kerja guru yang sangat minim. Kekurangan guru diakui sebagai ancaman besar bagi kualitas pendidikan (OECD, 2004). Olehnya itu tiap negara perlu memberikan perhatian lebih pada guru.

Di Belanda, misalnya, lowongan guru pada pendidikan menengah semakin meningkat tiap tahunnya (Departemen Pendidikan, Kebudayaan dan Ilmu Pengetahuan, 2009). Lowongan tersebut tentu tidak akan dilewatkan oleh guru pemula, baik calon guru yang memiliki kualifikasi mantap ataupun calon guru yang memiliki berbagai pengalaman dan beralih profesi demi mengejar karir untuk mengajar. Namun, rata-rata, guru yang memiliki pengalaman minim cenderung memperlihatkan perilaku mengajar yang kurang efektif di dalam kelas (Maulana, Helms-Lorenz, & Van de Grift 2014; Van de Grift, 2007). Oleh karena itu penting untuk mengambil tindakan yang tepat dan pada saat yang sama meningkatkan pengembangan profesionalitas guru-guru pemula.

Dalam upaya mempromosikan guru untuk loyal di profesi mereka, guru seharusnya didukung secara memadai di tempat kerja mereka. Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa dukungan sosial dapat mengurangi dampak negatif atas kelelahan emosional, pencapaian yang rendah dan ketidakpuasan kerja (Kinman, Wray, & Strange, 2011). Dalam perspektif peneliti, setidaknya dukungan sosial serta dukungan profesional dapat diaplikasikan bahkan pada tahap awal untuk setiap guru pemula, agar terhindar dari berbagai pengaruh buruk yang berkepanjangan. Kasus yang memprihatinkan terjadi di Amerika, yaitu sebanyak 40% Guru pemula meninggalkan profesi mereka hanya dalam waktu 5 tahun (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). Alasan yang paling umum terkait dengan tekanan dari berbagai pihak dan karakteristik pribadi; seperti beban kerja yang tinggi, kurangnya komunikasi dan dukungan oleh pihak administrasi dan mentor, minimnya feedback dari murid, dan hubungan yang buruk dengan rekan-rekan. Mengajar memang bukanlah merupakan urusan yang mudah walaupun juga tidak termasuk masalah rumit yang membutuhkan penanganan serius, oleh karena itu sangat penting untuk guru pemula menerima dukungan yang mendalam dari lingkungan kerja mereka demi mempertahankan kesejahteraan emosional murid, dimana hal itu tentu akan berdampak pada keadaan psikologis dan fisik mereka (Brennan, 2006; Hargreaves, 2000).

Dalam upaya memberikan dampak positif yang signifikan bagi guru pemula, sebuah penelitian yang belangsung selama satu tahun telah menguji hubungan antara proses psikologis dan mengidentifikasi faktor-faktor psikologis dari guru-guru pemula. Penelitian tersebut menunjukkan bahwa proses psikologis sangat erat terkait dengan proses mengajar mereka. Kesejahteraan psikologis dapat dipertahankan melalui tindakan konsisten dari dukungan tertentu oleh berbagai pihak sosial dan profesional (Helms-Lorenz, Slof, & Van de Grift, 2013). Namun, penelitian tersebut didasarkan pada desain pre-/posttest dengan menggunakan analisis regresi. Akibatnya, studi ini mengabaikan struktur hirarkis data. Mengingat struktur hirarkis data, penerapan (single-level) regresi tradisional analisis kurang tepat karena hasil yang dihasilkan akan cenderung berlebihan. Biasanya, mengabaikan struktur data hirarkis dalam analisis 'umumnya akan menyebabkan kesalahan standar regresi koefisien. Sebaliknya, pemodelan multilevel akan lebih tepat untuk jenis data tersebut (Snijders & Bosker, 2012). Selain itu, penting untuk menyelidiki apakah dukungan sosial dan profesional longitudinal (tahan lama) benar-benar memiliki dampak bagi kesejahteraan psikologis guru-guru pemula.

Terdapat beberapa faktor yang memicu tekanan pada guru. Faktor-faktor tersebut meliputi persiapan mengajar, kuantitas pengajaran, beban kerja dan tuntutan administrasi, kenakalan murid, waktu/sumber daya, ketidakseimbangan antara usaha dan manfaat, dan hubungan yang buruk (Boyle et al, 1995;. Clunies-Ross Little, & Kienhuis, 2008; Hastings & Bham, 2003; Griva & Joekes, 2003). Ketika penyebab stres tidak ditangani dengan baik dan menjadi semakin parah selama jangka waktu yang lama, cepat atau lambat, kondisi ini dapat menyebabkan kelelahan dan akhirnya meninggalkan profesi mereka sebagai guru (Betoret, 2006). Kemampuan guru untuk mengatasi situasi yang mengancam tampaknya dimediasi oleh efikasi diri mereka sendiri. Efikasi diri merupakan keyakinan individu mengenai kemampuan dirinya dalam melakukan tugas yang diperlukan untuk mencapai hasil tertentu. Keyakinan ini menentukan apakah tindakan akan dimulai, berapa banyak usaha akan dihabiskan, dan berapa lama akan dipertahankan dalam menghadapi rintangan dan kegagalan (Bandura, 1997).

Dalam rangka memperluas basis pengetahuan mengenai kesejahteraan psikologis guru dan peran dukungan sosial dan profesional bagi guru-guru pemula, penelitian ini juga mengkaji hubungan antara psikologis kesejahteraan guru-guru pemula dan peran pengaturan induksi (seperti pengurangan beban kerja, adaptasi lingkungan sekolah, pengembangan profesionalitas dan kegiatan pengajaran yang efektif) sebagai sarana pendukung untuk kesejahteraan psikologis guru-guru pemula secara longitudinal. Penelitian ini berkontribusi untuk memberikan perkembangan yang efektif dan menghasilkan program yang berguna untuk meningkatkan kesejahteraan bagi guru-guru pemula.

Beberapa penelitian terkait dengan judul penelitian ini, sebagian didasarkan pada penelitian non-eksperimental, kecuali penelitian Helms-Lorenz et al. (2013). Penelitian eksperimental diperlukan untuk menentukan sebab dan akibat dengan cara yang lebih tepat (Schneider, Carnoy, Kilpatrick, Schmidt, & Shavelson, 2007). Apakah dukungan menyebapkan perkembangan atau guru pemula yang cepat berkembang menarik lebih banyak dukungan? Selain itu, sebagian besar penelitian yang disebutkan sebelumnya tidak lebih dari 1 tahun (data cross-sectional). Dengan memperpanjang waktu penelitian sampai beberapa tahun. Hal ini berguna untuk mendapatkan pemahaman yang lebih baik mengenai kesejahteraan psikologis guru pemula untuk jangka waktu yang panjang.

Sebagian besar penelitian yang disebutkan di atas dianalisis dalam kerangka statistik single-level. Mengetahui bahwa sebagian besar data dalam penelitian pendidikan yang terstruktur secara hierarkis, analisis multilevel menawarkan cara yang lebih baik untuk menganalisis data hirarkis tersebut. Akhirnya, berdasarkan penelitian yang disebutkan sebelumnya terdapat kesenjangan yang masih mengundang pertanyaan dibenak peneliti, yakni bagaimana penelitian longitudinal dapat mempengaruhi kesejahteraan dan perilaku para guru pemula. Atas dasar itu penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menyelidiki hubungan antara kesejahteraan psikologis guru-guru pemula dan pengaturan induksi (program) selama tiga tahun masa mengajar, dengan nggunakan desain eksperimental dan menggabungkan kerangka multilevel untuk menganalisis data.



B. Rumusan Masalah

Berdasarkan ulasan sebelumnya, peneliti merumuskan beberapa poin yang menjadi pokok permasalahan dalam penelitian ini;

1. Bagaimana hubungan longitudinal antara efikasi diri, penyebab stres dan tanggapan pekerjaan yang dirasakan oleh guru pemula?

2. Bagaimana hubungan diferensial antara sekolah-sekolah yang memberikan kontribusi berupa pengaturan induksi dengan sekolah tanpa pengaturan induksi.

C. Objek Penelitian

Beberapa sekolah menengah di Belanda berpartisipasi dalam penelitian ini, berikut diuraikan dalam bentuk populasi dan sampel.

1. Populasi

Objek penelitian ini berlokasi di beberapa sekolah menengah di Negara Belanda yang terdiri dari 62 sekolah yang berbeda. Responden penelitian ini secara keseluruhan berjumlah sebanyak 338 guru pemula (dengan 55% diantaranya adalah perempuan).

2. Sampel

Sample dalam penelitian ini terdiri dari 223 guru bersertifikat yang memiliki pengalaman mengajar kurang dari tiga tahun, 80 guru yang tidak bersertifikat, dan selebihnya 35 guru yang sama sekali belum teridentifikasi statusnya. Pemilihan sampel telah dilakukan secara acak.



D. Metode Penelitian

Penelitian ini menggunakan metode Deskriptif dengan Pendekatan Longitudinal yang bertujuan untuk mempelajari pola dan urutan perkembangan /perubahan objek sejalan dengan berlangsungnya perubahan waktu. Penelitian terdiri dari dua kondisi, yaitu kondisi experimental dan kondisi control. Kondisi eksperimental ditujukan untuk 34 sekolah, yang terdiri dari 180 guru-guru pemula, pengaturan induksi dikembangkan dan dilaksanakan secara kooperatif bersama peneliti. Pada kondisi kontrol ditujukan untuk 28 sekolah, yang terdiri dari 158 guru-guru pemula, dimana sekolah secara teratur mengikuti proses seperti biasa dan tanpa menerima perlakuan apapun dari peneliti.

E. Teknik pengumpulan data

Peneliti menggunakan Kuesioner Elektronik tentang kesejahteraan psikologis guru dalam mengumpulkan data. Kuesioner diberikan sebanyak empat kali selama tiga tahun. Selama tahun pertama, kuesioner dibagikan sebanyak dua kali, yaitu sekali pada awal tahun ajaran dan sekali pada akhir tahun ajaran. Dalam tahun-tahun berikutnya, kuesioner dibagikan pada akhir tahun ajaran. Biasanya dalam penelitian longitudinal, sejumlah guru-guru pemula meninggalkan penelitian dari waktu ke waktu karena berbagai alasan, termasuk pindah ke sekolah lain, menghentikan pekerjaan, serta alasan yang tidak diketahui. Untuk lebih detail, informasi tentang data responden dapat dilihat pada tabel berikut;


F. Teknik analisis data

Mengingat penelitian ini didasarkan atas hubungan multilevel longitudinal, terdapat beberapa variabel yang menjadi konsentrasi dalam kuesioner, yaitu; longitudinal efikasi diri, penyebab tekanan, reaksi akibat tekanan dan variabel background.

1. Efikasi Diri

Kuesioner tentang efikasi diri menggunakan bahasa Belanda dan terdiri atas dua bagian: (1) efikasi diri kelas (19 item, α = 0,94, misalnya; 'Sejauh mana Anda mampu mengatasi gangguan di kelas tanpa mengeraskan suara Anda?') Dan ( 2) efikasi diri sekolah (14 item, α = 0,89, misalnya; 'sejauh mana Anda terlibat secara aktif dalam proses pengambilan keputusan di sekolah Anda?'). Para guru pemula memberikan jawaban dari Kuesioner berdasarkan ‘lima poin’ skala Likert mulai dari 'tidak pernah' hingga 'selalu'.

2. Penyebab tekanan

Berbeda dengan Efikasi Diri, Pengukuran Penyebab tekanan terdiri dari empat bagian: (1) tinggi tuntutan tugas (25 item, α = 0,87, misalnya; '? Seberapa sering Anda percaya bahwa Anda harus bekerja keras'), (2) kurangnya kesempatan belajar (10 item, α = 0,93, misalnya; 'sejauh mana Anda memiliki kesempatan untuk belajar hal-hal baru?'), (3) keterbatasan dalam mengatur (19 item, α = 0,90, misalnya; 'sejauh mana situasi pekerjaan yang anda alami memungkinkan Anda untuk memutuskan sendiri bagaimana melakukan pekerjaan itu ') dan (4) aspek hubungan sosial yang buruk (40 item, α = 0,85, misalnya;'? sejauh mana Anda menerima kecukupan informasi berkaitan dengan fungsi Anda sebagai anggota organisasi? ').



3. Reaksi terhadap tekanan (stress)

Untuk reaksi terhadap tekanan, variabel ini terdiri dari dua bagian: (1) ketegangan kerja berisis tentang laproan mental dan kekhawatiran emosional (27 item, α = 0,94, misalnya; 'Seberapa sering Anda merasa khawatir akan pekerjaan Anda di waktu senggang?') dan (2) ketidakpuasan kerja mengenai kurangnya kesenangan dan komitmen terhadap pekerjaan (21 item, α = 0,89, misalnya; 'Seberapa sering Anda mempertimbangkan untuk mengganti pekerjaan anda sekarang?'). Seluruh item dinilai dengan ‘empat poin’ skala Likert, mulai dari 'selalu' hingga 'tidak pernah' atau dari 'sangat setuju' hingga ‘sangat tidak setuju'. Item lainnya dinilai pada skala dikotomis (yaitu ya atau tidak). Skor yang lebih tinggi menunjukkan bahwa guru-guru pemula merasakan tekanan dan/atau ketegangan kerja serta ketidakpuasan kerja.

4. Variabel Background

Beberapa variabel yang juga termasuk dalam analisis penelitian ini: Subjek Pengajaran (0 = ilmu pengetahuan, 1 = non-sains), Ukuran Kelas (0 = kelas kecil, 1 = kelas besar), 0 = kelompok kontrol, 1 = kelompok induksi), Tingkatan Kelas (0 = kelas yang lebih rendah, 1 = kelas yang lebih tinggi, Status Guru Bersertifikat (0 = tidak bersertifikat, 1 = bersertifikat) jenis kelamin guru (0 = laki-laki, 1 = perempuan).

G. Hasil

1. Analisis Awal

Analisis ini difokuskan pada ketegangan dan ketidakpuasan kerja pada setiap level. Berdasarkan hasil model nol dari analisis multilevel untuk ketegangan kerja, peneliti menemukan hampir 0% dari varians pada level sekolah, 70% pada level guru dan 30% pada level occasion (Perhitungan didasarkan pada model nol). Ini berarti terdapat perbedaan yang signifikan antara guru-guru pemula mengenai ketegangan kerja yang mereka rasakan serta perubahan ketegangan kerja yang dirasakan dari waktu ke waktu.

Untuk ketidakpuasan kerja, distribusi variannya adalah 2% pada level sekolah, 56% pada level guru dan 42% pada level occasion. Ketika memeriksa pengaruh seiring berjalannya waktu pada ketegangan dan ketidakpuasan kerja, hasilnya menunjukkan bahwa ketegangan kerja yang dirasakan cenderung meningkat secara linear. Walaupun demikian perubahan atas ketidakpuasan kerja yang dirasakan tidak linear, hal ini dibuktikan dengan adanya variasi berupa peningkatan, penurunan, perlambatan dan percepatan selama tiga tahun.

2. Hubungan Longitudinal variabel kesejahteraan psikologis

Hasil temuan bagian ini menunjukkan terdapat hubungan longitudinal negatif antara kelas guru pemula, efikasi diri dan ketegangan kerja yang mereka rasakan (β s = - 0,58 dan - 1,21, p <0,001, masing-masing). Demikian pula, kelas guru pemula dan efikasi diri kelas yang negatif terkait dengan ketidakpuasan kerja yang mereka rasakan (β s = - 0,49 dan - 0,47, p <0,001, masing-masing). Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa semakin tinggi tingkat efikasi diri yang dirasakan guru pemula (dari waktu ke waktu), maka semakin rendah tingkat ketegangan kerja yang mereka rasakan dan begitu pula dengan ketidakpuasan kerja. Efek efikasi diri pada ketegangan dan ketidakpuasan kerja tetap signifikan bahkan setelah adanya penyesuaian dengan waktu dan variabel background.

Hubungan longitudinal antara ketegangan dan tekanan kerja guru-guru pemula disebabkan oleh: tuntutan tugas yang tinggi, kurangnya kesempatan belajar, kurangnya kebebasan dalam mengatur, dan aspek hubungan organisasi yang buruk adalah positif (β s = 0,45, 0,19,. 16, .45, p <0,001, masing-masing). Demikian juga, hubungan antara ketidakpuasan kerja guru-guru pemula dan variabel penyebab tekanan juga positif (β s = 0,13, 0,16, 0,11, 0,26, p <0,001, masing-masing). Ini berarti bahwa semakin tinggi tingkat penyebab tekanan yang dirasakan (dari waktu ke waktu), maka semakin tinggi tingkat ketegangan yang dirasakan dan begitu pula dengan ketidakpuasan. Setelah mengontrol waktu dan pengaruh dari variabel background, maka efek utama dari tekanan disebabkan oleh tuntutan tugas yang tinggi dan aspek hubungan organisasi yang buruk pada ketegangan kerja dan ketidakpuasan tetap signifikan. Efek utama dari stres yang disebabkan oleh kurangnya kesempatan belajar pada ketidakpuasan kerja juga tetap signifikan.

Pada efikasi diri dan variabel penyebab stress, sekitar 35% dari total varians dalam ketegangan kerja dan 31% dari total varians dalam ketidakpuasan kerja. Untuk ketegangan kerja, efikasi sekolah sekitar 5% dari varians, efikasi kelas 10%, tekanan yang disebabkan oleh: tinggi tuntutan tugas sekitar 23%, kurangnya kesempatan belajar 3%, kurangnya kebebasan mengatur 6% dan aspek buruknya hubungan organisasi sekitar 17%. Untuk ketidakpuasan kerja, efikasi diri sekolah adalah sekitar 12% dari varians, efikasi diri kelas 9%, tekanan yang dirasakan disebabkan oleh: tinggi tuntutan tugas 8%, kurangnya kesempatan belajar 11%, kurangnya kebebasan kemungkinan 9% dan aspek buruknya hubungan organisasi 23%.

3. Efek diferensial antara guru non-induksi dan induksi

Efek interaksi antara kondisi dan efikasi kelas pada ketegangan kerja menunjukkan hasil yang kurang memuaskan (negatif) untuk kelompok induksi dan non-induksi. Walaupun demikian, efek dari efikasi kelas pada ketegangan kerja sangat kuat pada guru-guru dalam kelompok induksi dibandingkan dengan non-induksi. Hasil lain menunjukkan bahwa peningkatan efikasi kelas berhasil mengurangi ketegangan pekerjaan guru dalam kelompok induksi, sekitar sepuluh kali lebih kuat dibandingkan dengan guru pada kelompok non-induksi. Pada kelompok non-induksi, hubungan negatif tidak terlihat signifikan. Namun, efek interaksi antara kondisi dan efikasi diri sekolah menunjukkan hal yang berbeda. Pada kelompok induksi, terdapat hubungan yang positif antara efikasi diri dalam sekolah dan ketegangan kerja, yang berarti bahwa semakin tinggi efikasi diri guru maka semakin tinggi pula ketegangan mereka. Sedangkan pada kelompok non-induksi, terdapat hubungan negatif antara efikasi diri dalam sekolah dan ketegangan kerja, hal ini menunjukkan bahwa semakin tinggi efikasi diri sekolah pada kelompok non-induksi, maka ketegangan mereka semakin rendah.

Pengaruh kelas dan efikasi sekolah pada ketidakpuasan kerja juga berbeda dengan kelompok kondisi (experimental) dan non-kondisi. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa efek dari efikasi diri kelas pada ketidakpuasan kerja dalam kelompok induksi lebih kuat dibandingkan dengan kelompok non-induksi. Peningkatan efikasi diri mampu mengurangi ketidakpuasan kerja guru pada kelompok induksi sekitar enam belas kali lebih kuat dibandingkan dengan guru pada kelompok non-induksi. Pada akhirnya, efek efikasi diri sekolah pada ketidakpuasan kerja adalah sekitar delapan kali lebih lemah dalam induksi dibandingkan kelompok non-induksi. Namun, efek pada kedua kelompok negatif, hal ini menunjukkan bahwa semakin tinggi efikasi sekolah, maka ketidakpuasan kerja cenderung semakin rendah.



H. Kesimpulan

Penelitian ini cenderung mengarah pada pengujian beberapa program yang tersusun dalam pengaturan induksi (seperti pengurangan beban kerja, adaptasi lingkungan sekolah, pengembangan profesionalitas dan kegiatan pengajaran yang efektif) sebagai sarana pendukung untuk kesejahteraan psikologis guru-guru pemula dengan melakukan pendekatan secara longitudinal. Hasil temuan dari penelitian ini diantaranya;

1. Guru-guru pemula yang percaya bahwa mereka dengan yakin melakukan kegiatan mengajar di kelas cenderung memiliki tingkat yang lebih rendah akan ketegangan dan ketidakpuasan kerja (dari waktu ke waktu). Hal ini membuktikan bahwa efikasi diri memiliki peran yang kuat bagi guru-guru pemula ketika mengalami berbagai tekanan setiap hari, termasuk ketegangan dan ketidakpuasan kerja.

2. Guru-guru pemula yang mengalami tekanan dan ketidakpuasan kerja secara longitudinal sangat berkaitan dengan tuntutan tugas psikologis yang tinggi, kurangnya kesempatan belajar, terbatasnya kemungkinan mengatur dan aspek sosial berupa buruknya hubungan organisasi.

3. Efek dari efikasi diri pada ketegangan kerja dan ketidakpuasan tergantung pada jenis efikasi diri (kelas dan konteks sekolah) dan kondisi (induksi versus non-induksi ).

4. Pengaturan induksi tampaknya menjadi sarana yang ampuh dalam memberikan kontribusi berupa dukungan sosial dan profesional dalam rangka efikasi diri dalam kelas sekaligus mengurangi tingkat ketegangan kerja para guru pemula.


Masih terdapat beberapa hal yang menarik perhatian peneliti menyangkut isu kesejahteraan psikologis khususnya di lingkungan pendidikan. Peneliti menyarankan bahwa untuk kedepan nanti, diharapakan akan ada penelitian yang mampu lebih fokus akan dampak kurangnya pengaturan induksi di sekolah-sekolah. Di sisi lain tidak menutup kemungkinan hadirnya beberapa program induksi yang baru sehingga pada akhirnya akan memberikan kontribusi bagi para guru, mencegah meninggalkan profesi mengajar mereka untuk jangka waktu yang panjang dan pada saat yang sama memberikan kesejahteraan psikologis.

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