Makalah Ijtihad

BABI

PENDAHULUAN

1. LATAR BELAKANG

Sesungguhnya ijtihad adalah suatu cara untuk mengetahui hukum sesuatu melalui dalil-dalil agama yaitu Al-Qur'an dan Al-hadits dengan jalan istimbat.

Adapun mujtahid itu ialah ahli fiqih yang menghabiskan atau mengerahkan seluruh kesanggupannya untuk memperoleh persangkaan kuat terhadap sesuatu hukum agama.

Oleh karena itu kita harus berterima kasih kepada para mujtahid yng telah mengorbankan waktu,tenaga, dan pikiran untuk menggali hukum tentang masalah-masalah yang dihadapi oleh umat Islam baik yang sudah lama terjadi di zaman Rosullulloh maupun yang baru terjadi.

2. RUMUSAN MASALAH

Dari pokok-pokok permasalahan diatas penyusun merumuskan beberapa masalah yaitu:

1. Pengertian Ijtihad
2. Dasar ijtihad
3. Ruang lingkup ijtihad
4. Syarat mujtahid
5. Tingkatan para mujtahid

BAB II

PEMBAHASAN

IJTIHAD

a.      Pengertian Ijtihad

Menurut bahasa berasal dari kata: jahada

berarti sungguh-sungguh, rajin, giat, atau mencurahkan kemampuannya daya upaya atau usaha keras, berusaha keras untuk mencapai atau memperoleh sesuatu

Menurut istilah ijtihad adalah suatu upaya pemikiran yang sungguh-sungguh untuk menegaskan prasangka kuat atau Dhon yang didasarkan suatu petunjuk yang berlaku atau penelitian dan pemikiran untuk mendapatkan suatu yang terdekat dengan kitabullah dan sunnah rosululloh SAW.

b.      Dasar Ijtihad

Ijtihad bisa sumber hukumnya dari al-qur'an dan alhadis yang menghendaki digunakannya ijtihad.

a.       Firman Allah dalam Surat An-Nisa' Ayat 59

Artinya: Hai orang-orang yang beriman taatilah allah dan taatilah rosul dan orng-orang yang memegang kekuasaan diantara kamu kemudian jika kamu berselisih pendapt tentang sesuatu maka kembalikanlah ia kepada allah(alqur'an dan sunnah nabi)

b.      Sabda Rosullullah Saw:

Artinya dari mu'adz bin jabal ketika nabi muhammad saw mengutusnya ke yaman untuk bertindak sebagai hakim beliau bertanya kepda mu'adz apa yang kamu lakukan jika kepadamu diajukan suatu perkara yang harus di putuskan? Mua'dz menjawab, "aku akan memutuskan berdasarkan ketentuan yang termaktuk dalam kitabullah" nabi bertanya lagi "bagaimana jika dalam kitab allah tidak terdapat ketentuan tersebut?" mu'adz menjawab, " dengan berdasarkan sunnah rosulullah". Nabi bertanya lagi, "bagaimana jika ketenyuan tersebut tidak terdapat pula dalam sunnah rosullullah?" mu'adz menjawab, "aku akan menjawab dengan fikiranku, aku tidak akan membiarkan suatu perkara tanpa putusan" , lalu mu'adz mengatakan, " rosullulah kemudian menepuk dadaku seraya mengatakan, segala puji bagi Allah yang telah memberikan pertolongan kepada utusanku untuk hal yang melegakan".

c.       Sabda Rosulullah SAW yang artinya:

"bila seorang hakim akan memutuskan masalah atau suatu perkara, lalu ia melakukan ijtihad, kemudian hasilnya benar, maka ia memperoleh pahala dua (pahala ijtihad dan pahala kebenaran hasilnya). Dan bila hasilnya salah maka ia memperoleh satu pahala (pahala melakukan ijtihad)

d.      Ijtihad seorang sahabat Rosulullah SAW, Sa'adz bin Mu'adz ketika membuat keputusan hukum kepada bani khuroidhoh dan rosulullah membenarkan hasilnya, beliau bersabda "Sesungguhnya engkau telah memutuskan suatu terhadap mereka menurut hukum Allah dari atas tujuh langit".

Artinya hadist ini menunjukkan bahwa ijtihad sahabat tersebut mempunyai manfaat dan dihargai oleh rosulullah

e.       Firman Allah yang artinya : "Mereka menanyakan kepadamu tentang pembagian harta rampasan perang. Katakanlah, hanya rampasan perang itu keputusan Allah dan rosul sebab itu bertaqwalah kepada Allah dan perbaikilah hubungan diantara sesamamu, dan taatilah kepada Allah dan Rosulnya jika kamu adalah orang-orang yang beriman". (Al-Anfal:1)

f.       fiman Allah yang artinya : "Ketahuilah, sesungguhnya apa saja yang dapat kamu peroleh sebagai rampaan perang maka sesungguhnya setengah untuk Allah, Rosul, Kerabat rosul, anak-anak yatim, orang-oarang miskan dan ibnu sabil. Jika kamu beriamn kepada Allah dan kepada apa yang kami terunkan kepada hamba kami muhammad dari hari furqon yaitu bertemunya dua pasukan. Dan Allah maha kuasa ata segala sesuatu". (Al-Anfal:41)

c.       Ruang Lingkup Ijtihad

Ruang lingkup ijtihad ialah furu' dan dhoniah yaitu masalah-masalah yang tidak ditentukan secara pasti oleh nash Al-Qur'an dan Hadist. Hukum islam tentang sesuatu yang ditunjukkan oleh dalil Dhoni atau ayat-ayat Al-qur'an dan hadis yang statusnya dhoni dan mengandung penafsiran serta hukum islam tentang sesuatu yang sama sekali belum ditegaskan atau disinggung oleh Al-qur'an, hadist, maupan ijma' para ulama' serta yang dikenal dengan masail fiqhiah dan waqhiyah

berijtihad dalam bidang-bidang yang tak disebutkan dalam Al-qur'an dan hadist dapat ditempuh dengan berbagai cara :

a.       Qiyas atau analogi adalah salah satu metode ijtihad, telah dilakukan sendiri oleh rosulullah SAW. Meskipun sabda nabi merupakan sunah yang dapat menentukan hukum sendiri

b.      Memelihara kepentingan hidup manusia yaitu menarik manfaat dan menolak madlarat dalam kehidupan manusia. Menurut Dr. Yusuf qordhowi mencakup tiga tingkatan:

                                                                      i.      Dharuriyat yaitu hal-hal yang penting yang harus dipenuhi untuk kelangsung hidup manusia.

                                                                    ii.      Hajjiyat yaitu hal-hal yang dibutuhkan oleh manusia dalam hidupnya.

                                                                  iii.      Tahsinat yaitu hal-hal pelengkap yang terdiri atas kebisaan dan akal yang baik

d.      Syarat Mujtahid

Syarat-syarat umum yang disepakati oleh para ulama' menurut Dr. Yusuf Qordhowi sebagai berikut:

a.       Harus mengetahui Al-Qur'an dan ulumul Qur'an:

                                                               i.      Mengetahui sebab-sebab turunnya ayat

                                                             ii.      Mengetahui sepenuhnya sejarah pengumpulan atau penyusunan al-qur'an.

                                                           iii.      Mengetahui sepenuhnya ayat-ayat makiyah dan madaniyah, nasikh dan mansukh, muhkam dan mutasyabih, dan sebagainya

                                                           iv.      Menguasai ilmu tafsir, pengetahuan tentang pemahaman al-qur'an.

b.      Mengetahui Assunah dan ilmu Hadits

c.       Mengetahui bahasa arab

d.      Mengethui tema-tema yang sudah merupakan ijma'

e.       Mengetahui usul fiqih

f.       Mengetahui maksud-maksud sejarah

g.      Mengenal manusia dan alam sekitarnya

h.      Mempunyai sifat adil dan taqwa

syarat tambahan :

i.        Mengetahui ilmu ushuluddin

j.        Mengetahui ilmu mantiq

k.      Mengetahui cabang-cabang fiqih

e.       Tingkatan-Tingkatan Para Mujtahid

Para mujtahid mempunyai tingkatan-tingkatan:

a.       Mujtahid mutlaq atau mujtahid mustakhil yaitu mujtahid yang mempunyai pengetahuan lengkap untuk berisbad dengan Al-qur'an dan Al-haditsdengan menggunakan kaidah mereka sendiri dan diakui kekuatannya oleh tokoh agama yang lain. Para mujtahid ini yang paling terkenal adalah imam madzhab empat

b.      Mujtahid muntasib yaitu mujtahid yang terkait oleh imamnya seperti keterkaitan murid dan guru mereka adalah imam Abu Yusuf, Zarf bin Huzail yang merupakan murid imam Abu Hanifah

c.       Mujtahid fil madzhab yaitu para ahli yang mengikuti para imamnya baik dalam usul maupun dalam furu' misalnya imam Al-Muzani adalah mujtahid fil madzhab Syafi'i

d.      Mujtahid tarjih yaitu mujtahid yang mampu menilai memilih pendapat sebagai imam untuk menentukan mana yang lebih kuat dalilnya atau mana yang sesuai dengan situasi kondisi yang ada tanpa menyimpang dari nash-nash khot'i dan tujuan syariat, misalnya Abu Ishaq al syirazi, imam Ghazali

BAB III

PENUTUP

f.       KESIMPULAN

a.       Ijtihad adalah suatu upaya pemikiran atau penelitian untuk mendapatkan hukum dalam kitabullah dan sunah rosul

b.      dasar ijtihad:

                                                                          i.      Firman Allah surat An nisa' :59

                                                                        ii.      Firman Allah surat Al anfal: 1,41

                                                                      iii.      Dan banyak juga hadits-hadits Rosulullah SAW yang menyebutkan tentang dasar-dasar ijtihad

                                                                      iv.      Tingkatan mujtahid :

1.      Mujtahid Mutlak

2.      Mujtahid Muntasib

3.      Mujtahid fil Madzhab

4.      Mujtahid Tarjih

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Needs Assessment

Discussion

Needs assessment or need analysis in a language program is often viewed  simply as identification of the language forms that the students will likely need to use in the target language when they are required to actually understand and to produce the language. In general term, needs analysis also called needs assessment, refers to the activities involved in gathering information that will serve as the basis for developing a curriculum that will meet the learning needs of particular group of students. In the case of language program, those needs will be language related. Once identified, needs can be stated in terms of goals and objectives which in turn, can serve as the basis for developing tests, materials, teaching activities, and evaluation strategies, as well as for reevaluating the precision and accuracy of the original needs assessment.

The aims of a needs analysis are thus to determine the types of situations in which learners will be using English, the tasks and activities they are expected to carry out for take part in English. And their existing language skills or abilities with respect to those tasks (Munby 1978).

Needs can be distinguished between “subjective” and Objective” needs (Brindly 1989:70) defines objective need as “derivable from different kinds of factual information about learners, their use of language in real life communication situations as well as their current language proficiency and language difficulties” and subjective needs the cognitive and affective needs of the learners in the learning situations.

Johnson (1994:55) distinguished the needs between “felt” needs and perceived” needs. Felt needs are those which learners have. Felt needs in this reveled state are sometimes referred to express needs and maybe devaluated by viewing them as desire or wants. Thus Perceived Needs represent the other side of the coin –judgments or certified expert about the educational gaps in other people’s experience.

In assessing the needs, Grave (1996:15-16) suggest to include information about the learners’ background – country and culture, education, family, profession, language spoken, age and so on; the students; abilities of proficiency in speaking, understanding, reading, and writing English .

Practical guidelines to needs assessment is proposed by Isaac and Michael (1990:21) as follows:

a.    Identify the students-oriented goals (needs are based on goals)

b.    Rank the importance of these goal without regard to performance levels which are categorized as high, moderate, or low importance.

c.    Assess the level of performance for each of the goals (categorized as high, moderate, or low)

d.    Establish a priority for each student goal, considering both importance and performance.

1.     Steps in Needs Analysis

Jordan (1997) provides a summary of steps involved in conducting a needs analysis before looking at the different approach.

2.     Approach to Needs Analysis/Assessment

a.    Target-situation analysis (TSA)

           This approach was used by Munby (1978) focusing on the students needs at the end of a language course, and target-level performance. The model collects data about the learners rather than from the learners.

b.    Present-situation analysis (PSA)

           This approach was provided by Richterich and Chancerel (1978/80). The PASA ascertains the students’ rate of the language development at the beginning of the language course. The source of information is the students, the teaching establishment, user institution, sponsor, place of work, ect. The method used are surveys, questionaries and interviews.

c.    Learning-centered approach (LCA)

           This approach inferred that learning is totally by the learner. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) compare “target needs” (what the learner needs to do in the target situation) with “learning needs” (what the learner needs to learn.
      Detailed question for target needs;

1)    Why is the language needed?

2)    How will the language be used?

3)    What will the content areas be?

4)    Who will the learner use the language with?

5)    Where will the language be used?

6)    When will the language be used?

Detailed question for learning needs;

1.    Why are the learners taking the course?

2.    How do the learners learn?

3.    What resources are available?

4.    Who are the learners?

5.    Where will the ESP course take place?

6.    When will the ESP course take place?

d.    Strategy analysis

           In 1980s, the focus of needs analysis involved not only method of teaching, but also method of learning, in other words, observing the preferred learning styles and strategies of students.

           Allwright (1982) made a distinction between needs (the skills which a student seen as being relevant to him/herself), wants (those needs on which the students put a high priority in the available, limited time), and lacks (the difference between the student’s present competence and the desired competence).

e.    Mean analysis

           This (Holliday and Cooke 1982) attempt adapt the language courses to local situation; in other words, to accommodate what are frequently seen to be “constrains”, e.g; cultural attitudes, resources, materials, equipment and methods.

3.     Philosophies of Needs Assessment

     According to Stuffbeam (Cited in Brown, 1995), there are four divergent philosophies can arise in a needs analysis

a.    The discrepancy philosophy views needs as differences between desired performance from the students and observed or predicted performance (what they are actually doing).

b.    The democratic philosophy views needs as a change desired by a majority of some reference group or majority of the group involved.

c.    The analytic philosophy sees needs as whatever the students will naturally learn next based on what is known about them and the learning process involved ; that is the students are at stage x in their language development, and they next need to learn x + 1 or whatever is next in the hierarchy of language development.

d.    The diagnostic philosophy views a need as the direction improvement predicted, given information about current status. This philosophy might lead to an analysis of the important language skills necessary such as for immigrants to survives in their adopted country.

4.     Who will be involved in the Needs Analysis?

a.    The target group which is made up those people about whom information will ultimately be gathered. Usually consist of students in a program and sometimes the teacher and/or administrator.

b.    The audience for a need analysis which encompasses all people who will eventually be required to act upon the analysis. Usually consists of teachers, teachers’ aid, program administrator, and any governing bodies or supervisor in the bureaucracy above the language program.

c.    The needs of analysis who are responsible for conducting the needs analysis. They maybe consultants brought in for the purpose, or members of the faculty designated for the job.

d.    The resource group which consist of any people who may serve as source of information about the target group.  In some contexts, financial sponsors, outsiders (content course teachers).

5.     A target situation Analysis framework

a.    Why is the language needed?

-       For study

-       For work

-       For training

-       For a combination of these

-       For some other purpose, e.g. status, examination, promotion

b.    How will the language be used?

-       Medium : Speaking, Writing, Reading or Listening

-       Channel : e.g. telephone, face to face

-       Types of text discourse; e.g; academic texts, lectures, informal conversation, technical manuals, catalogues.

c.    What will the content areas be?

-       Subjects : e.g: medicine, biology, architecture, shipping, commerce, engineering

-       Level ; e.g: technician, craftsman, postgraduate, secondary school

d.    Who will the learner use the language with?

-       Native speakers, non-native speakers:

-       Level of knowledge of receiver: e.g expert, layman, students

-       Relationship: colleague, teacher, costumer, superior subordinate

e.    Where will the language be used?

-       Physical setting: e.g office, lecture theater, hotel, workshop, library

-       Human context: e.g. alone, meeting, demonstrations, on the telephone

-       Linguistic context: e.g in own country, abroad

f.     When will the language be used?

-       concurrently with the ESP course or subsequently

-       frequently, seldom, in small amounts, in large chunks

g.    Why are the learners taking the course?

-       Compulsory or optional

-       Apparent need or covert

-       Status, money, promotion involved?

-       What do learners think they will achieve?

-       What is their attitude toward the ESP course?

h.    How do the learners learn?

-       What is their learning background?

-       What is their concept of teaching and learning?

-       What methodology will appeal to them?

-       What sort of technique are likely to bore/alienate them?

i.      What resources are available?

-       Number and professional competence of teachers

-       Attitude of teachers to ESP

-       Teachers’ knowledge of and attitude to the subject content

-       Material

-       Aids

-       Opportunities for out-or-class activities

j.      Who are the learners?

-       Age/sex/nationally

-       What do they already know about English?

-       What subject knowledge do they have?

-       What are their interests?

-       What is their socio-cultural background?

-       What teaching styles are they used to?

-       What is their attitude to English or to the culture of the English speaking world

k.    Where will the ESP course take place?

-       Are the surroundings pleasant, dull, noisy, or cold

l.      When will the ESP course take place?

-       Time of day

-       Every day/ once a week

-       Fill-time/part time

-       Concurrent with need or pre-need.

            In college education, the needs analysis of the students will be normal practice to ask both the instructors and the students about their English needs. The lecturer might tend to exaggerate the need for English, while students may give lower indication of the need for English.

                        Practically, needs analysis will provide the teacher or curriculum and course designer with a very clear background of the learners in terms of the language needs in a real situation, the types of tasks involved, the skills available and required, the register, the setting and the environment.

6.     Types of instruments

Need analyst’s role	Instrument	Procedure
Outsider looking in	Existing information	Records analysis
		System analysis
		Literature review
		Letter writing
	Tests	Proficiency
		Placement
		Diagnostic
		achievement
	Observations	Case studies
		Diary studies
		Behavior observation
		Interactional analysis
		inventories
Facilitator drawing out	Interviews	Individual
information		Group
	Meetings	Delphi technique
		Advisory
		Interest group
		Review
	Questionnaire	Bio data surveys
		Opinion surveys
		Self-ratings
		Judgmental ratings
		Q sort

7.     Some methods of collecting data for needs analysis

a.    Advance document

b.    Language test

c.    Self assessment

d.    Observation in class :monitoring

e.    Class progress tests ( an error analysis)

f.     Surveys: profile (questionnaire)

g.    Structure interview

h.    Learner diaries/Journal

i.      Case Study

j.      End-of-course test

k.    Evaluation/feedback (questionnaire; discussion)

l.      Follow –up investigations

m.   Previous research

 

Reference : Book of Fundamental Aspect of English for Specific Purposes by M. Basri Wello and Syarifuddin Dollah (UNM)

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